An-Najah National University Faculty of Graduate Studies PATHOLOGICAL NARCISSISM FORMS AND THEIR RELATIONS TO COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG YOUTHS IN PALESTINE (1948) By Aya Abu Hadeed Supervisors Dr. Fakher Nabeel Khalili Dr. Ma'rouf Abed Alraheem Shayeb This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University, Nablus - Palestine. 2025 PATHOLOGICAL NARCISSISM FORMS AND THEIR RELATIONS TO COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG YOUTHS IN PALESTINE (1948) By Aya Abu Hadeed This Thesis was Defended Successfully on 22/05/2025 and approved by Dr. Fakher Nabeel Khalili Supervisor Signature Dr. Ma'rouf Abed Alraheem Shayeb Co-Supervisor Signature Prof. Mazouz J. Alawnah External Examiner Signature Dr. Ahmad Hanani Internal Examiner Signature Dedication I dedicate my project to my beloved ones and family, especially my mother, for all the support that she gave me. I never imagined that I would achieve this level of success without them believing in me with every step I take. And lastly, to myself. I'm proud of who I'm today and whom I became. Acknowledgements This thesis has been done not only for the purpose of pursuing a higher education degree, but also to broaden my knowledge and experience in this field, and to search for my place and where I stand within it. With this project complete, I would like to extend all my thanks and gratitude to Dr. Fakher Khalili and Dr. Ma’rouf Shayeb, my academic supervisors and teachers, throughout my quest for knowledge, for their valuable patience and feedback. I would also like to sincerely thank the esteemed members of the internal and external examination committee for their valuable time, insightful comments, and constructive guidance, which have greatly enriched this thesis. I am equally grateful to my colleagues and classmates for their influential support, encouragement, and feedback. Finally, I extend my sincere appreciation to my family, especially my parents and siblings, for standing by me and being a source of motivation and inspiration throughout this process. . Declaration I, the undersigned, declare that I submitted the thesis entitled: PATHOLOGICAL NARCISSISM FORMS AND THEIR RELATIONS TO COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG YOUTHS IN PALESTINE (1948) I declare that the work provided in this thesis, unless otherwise referenced, is the researcher’s own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or qualification. Aya Abu Hadeed Student's Name: Aya Abu Hadeed Signature: 22/05/2025 Date: List of Contents Dedication III Acknowledgements IV Declaration V List of Contents VI List of Tables VIII List of Appendices IX Abstract X Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Problem Statement 2 1.3 Objectives of the Study 4 1.4 Importance of the Study 4 1.4.1 Scientific Importance 4 1.4.2 Practical Importance 5 1.5 Terms Definitions 5 1.6 Literature Review 6 1.7 Narcissism 6 1.7.1 Introduction 6 1.7.2 Historical Perspectives on Narcissism 7 1.7.3 Healthy and Pathological Narcissism 7 1.7.4 Pathological Narcissism Forms 8 1.7.5 Theories Explaining Narcissism 13 1.8 Cognitive Distortions 16 1.8.1 Types and Forms of Cognitive Distortions 16 1.8.2 Cognitive Distortions Components 17 1.8.3 The Impact of Core Beliefs on Cognitive Distortions 18 1.8.4 Impacts of Cognitive Distortions on Mental Health 19 1.8.5 Theoretical Perspectives Explaining Cognitive Distortions 19 1.9 Moral Development 22 1.9.1 Components of Moral Development 23 1.9.2 Factors of Moral Development 23 1.9.3 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development 24 1.9.4 Narcissism, Cognitive Distortions, and Moral Development 25 1.10 Previous Studies 26 1.10.1 Relationship between Narcissism and Cognitive Distortions 26 1.10.2 Relationship between Narcissism and Moral Development 29 1.10.3 Relationship between Cognitive Distortions and Moral Development 31 1.10.4 Critique the Previous Studies 32 1.10.5 Unique Aspects of the Current Study 32 Chapter Two: Method 34 2.1 Introduction 34 2.2 Study design 34 2.3 Study population 34 2.4 Sampling and sample size 35 3.5 Instrumentation 36 3.6 The Procedures 53 3.8 Study Variables 55 3.7 Data analyses 55 Chapter Three: The Results 56 Chapter Four: Discussion 67 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Discussion 67 4.3 Strengths and Limitations 87 4.3.1 Strengths 87 4.3.2 Limitations 87 4.4 Conclusions 88 4.5 Recommendations 89 4.6 Final Thoughts 91 References 92 Appendices 103 الملخص ‌ب List of Tables Table 1 : Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants in the current study (n = 120) …………………………………………………………………….……35 Table 2: Items' communalities in the PNFS …………………………….………….…..41 Table 4: Reliability coefficients for the subscales of PNFS (n = 120) ………………….42 Table 5: Description of the final version of PNFS …………………..…………………43 Table 6.: The construct validity of the Arabic version of SROMS (n = 40) ……………47 Table 7: The discriminant validity of the Arabic version of SROMS (n = 40) ………….48 Table 9.: The discriminant validity of the Arabic version of the ICD (n = 40) …………51 Table 10: Reliability coefficients for the subscales of the ICD (n = 40) ……………….52 Table 11.: Description of the final version of the ICD ………………………………….53 List of Appendices Appendix A: The Pathological Narcissism Forms Scale [PNFS] (English Version) ………….103 Appendix B: The Pathological Narcissism Forms Scale [PNFS] (Arabic Version) …………..111 Appendix C: Inventory of Cognitive Distortions [ICD] (English Version) ……………………118 Appendix D: Inventory of Cognitive Distortions [ICD] (Arabic Version) ……………………123 Appendix E: Social-Moral Objective Thinking Scale [SROM] (Arabic Version)…………….. 127 Appendix F: The Sociomoral Reflection Objective Measure [SROM] (English Version) …….151 Appendix G: Panel Of Expert Judges…………………………………………………………. 175 Appendix H: Tables………………………………………………………..…………………. 176 PATHOLOGICAL NARCISSISM FORMS AND THEIR RELATIONS TO COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG YOUTHS IN PALESTINE (1948) By Aya Abu Hadeed Supervisors Dr. Fakher Nabeel Khalili Dr. Ma'rouf Abed Alraheem Shayeb Abstract The main objective of this study was to determine if there was any relationship that existed among pathological narcissism, cognitive distortions as well as the moral development in the Palestinian youths (1948). The study also considered psychological variables affected by sex, age, education, residence and marital status. The study used a quantitative research design which included a sample of one hundred and twenty participants who were selected using convenient sampling technique. The instruments that were used: Pathological Narcissism Forms Scale, Cognitive Distortions Scale, and Social Moral Thinking Scale. Findings showed significant relationships between pathological narcissism and cognitive distortions. It was also found a negative association between narcissism and moral development. The results indicated that moral development and cognitive distortions were influenced by demographic variables; females showed higher levels of moral development compared to males, while cognitive distortions were affected by age and place of residence. In addition, the research was able to prove that poor moral development contributed by high level on narcissism hence there is need for solution in such cases. In conclusion, the study establishes that dealing with moral development in Palestinian youth calls for attention to pathological narcissism as well as cognitive distortions. The study proposes intervention through educational and psychological programs tailored to counter these vices. These efforts must aim at curbing narcissism and rectifying harmful cognitive trends to enhance healthy moral growth among individuals. Besides, the study calls for additional studies that will be conducted within similar environments to gather more insights about psychological dynamics influencing morality especially in such kind of settings. The current study demonstrates how important it is to consider demographic factors while planning interventions meant to enhance morality particularly in population with complex social problems. Combining specific psychological and educational approaches would help overcome challenges related to narcissism and cognitive distortions. Keywords: Pathological Narcissism; Cognitive Distortions; Moral Development, Palestinian Youth; Palestine (1948). XI Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Background Emotions, behaviors, and general life adjustment are dependent on human cognition. When one believes rationally, they will most likely act reasonably thereby promoting well-adjusted and healthy emotional character. It is important that we note that cognitive distortions refer to an automatic negative thought pattern which distorts the perception and leads to harmful emotional responses (1). Such distortions involve a variety of maladaptive thoughts like magnifying negatives, minimizing positives, overgeneralizing, taking areas too personally, taking into consideration the worst will happen, blaming oneself, etc (2). They profoundly influence individuals' cognitive frameworks, shaping how they interpret and react to events. Pathological narcissism stands out as a significant personality disorder heavil influenced by cognitive distortions (3). Rooted in distorted beliefs and thoughts, pathological narcissism distorts individuals' perceptions, fostering grandiosity and entitlement while evoking negative emotional responses. The relationship between pathological narcissism and cognitive distortions is reciprocal; narcissistic tendencies reinforce cognitive distortions, which in turn amplify narcissistic behaviors (4). Narcissism manifests in various forms, each impacting individuals' behaviors and relationships uniquely. Overt narcissism involves outward displays of grandeur and self-importance, whereas covert narcissism masks underlying feelings of inadequacy with outward humility (5). The grandiose form of narcissism stresses the aspect of being better and in control, while the communal type of narcissism depends on being seen as helping or supportive by others (6) Both of these narcissistic characters originate in the early psychological constructs, and they have a great impact on the evolution of individuals with respect to their morals and how they relate with other members of society. To be able to differentiate between right and wrong, one must go through moral development, which is dependent on the inner moral standards that are influenced by cultural and individual factors (7). This is because ethical development creates a basis for just behavior and enables individuals to make choices that they believe follow such principles of right and just conduct. Understanding the complex interplay between pathological narcissism, cognitive distortions, and moral development is crucial in contemporary psychological discourse. This study aims to fill existing research gaps, particularly within the Palestinian context, examining how these factors intersect among youth in Palestine (1948). 1.2 Problem Statement Individuals and societies alike go through a critical stage involving the formation of character and future orientation, a phase marked by both challenges and opportunities. In recent times, the increasing prevalence of narcissistic tendencies within modern social structures has raised serious concerns about their potential impact on moral development and cognitive functioning. While a number of studies have explored pathological narcissism, cognitive distortions, and moral development individually, there remains a significant gap in understanding how these variables interact, particularly in complex socio-political contexts such as that of Palestinian youth. This study was motivated by repeated field-based observations stemming from my professional and voluntary experience in institutions working with adolescents and young adults. Through this direct engagement, I consistently observed recurring patterns among the individuals I encountered—most notably, the coexistence of narcissistic traits, cognitive distortions, and signs of underdeveloped moral reasoning. These firsthand experiences led me to question whether these phenomena are interrelated or whether they appear independently of one another. In addition to these practical insights, my academic background and specialized training—through university education and courses addressing topics such as narcissism, moral development, and cognitive distortions—have significantly contributed to shaping the foundations of this research. Together, these academic and field experiences underscored the need for a systematic investigation into the relationships between these psychological constructs. This study, therefore, seeks to examine how pathological narcissism and cognitive distortions may influence moral development among Palestinian youth. It highlights the importance of understanding these dynamics within a broader context shaped by occupation, political instability, and social pressures—factors that deeply affect youth identity, behavior, and psychological well-being. The study's questions are designed to answer the central question: What are the pathological narcissism forms and their relations to cognitive distortions and moral development among youths in Palestine (1948)? The following sub-questions branch from this central question: 1. What are the levels of pathological narcissism forms among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948)? 2. What is the percentage of participants who are described as pathologically narcissistic according to DSM-5? 3. What is the level of cognitive distortions among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948)? 4. What is the level of moral development among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948)? 5. What are the relationships among pathological narcissism forms, cognitive distortions, and moral development among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948)? 6. Are there significant differences in pathological narcissism forms among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948) due to gender, age, education level, location of residence, and marital status? 7. Are there significant differences in cognitive distortions among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948) due to gender, age, education level, location of residence, and marital status? 8. Are there significant differences in moral development among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948) due to gender, age, education level, location of residence, and marital status? 1.3 Objectives of the Study The study aims to achieve a set of objectives: · To determine the levels of pathological narcissism forms among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948). · To identify the percentage of participants described as pathologically narcissistic according to DSM-5 criteria. · To assess the level of cognitive distortions among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948). · To evaluate the level of moral development among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948). · To examine the relationship among pathological narcissism forms, cognitive distortions, and moral development among Palestinians living in Palestine (1948). · To determine if there are any notable variations of the forms of pathological narcissism across gender, age, education level, location and marital status in Palestinians from Palestine (1948). · To determine whether there is any significant difference in cognitive distortions among Palestinians in Palestine (1948) with respect to gender, age, education, location and marital status · To determine if there are differences in moral development among male and female living in Palestine (1948) according to age, education, location and marital status. 1.4 Importance of the Study The importance of this study can be understood by dividing it into scientific importance and practical importance as follows: 1.4.1 Scientific Importance · Advancement of Psychological Knowledge: This study will help us understand more about pathological narcissism and how it stunts the growth and affects the psychology of young individuals. This is also important as it helps in coming up with new theories as well as going deeper into certain topics within the discipline of psychology. · Contribution to research literature: The focus on Palestinian youth makes a valuable contribution to studies which promote cultural and social variety in psychology and sociology. · A better insight into social relationships: Understanding of the ways in which thought abnormalities and moral growth can be influenced in children will provide insight for researchers and allow social scientists to comprehend the nature of changing social relationships. 1.4.2 Practical Importance · Development of Educational and Counseling Programs: The results of this research can help in creating customized educational as well as therapy plans meant for young individuals within the Palestinian territories with the aim of improving on their physical/moral growth. · Supporting Policy Decisions: Giving policy makers scientific proof on pathological narcissism and its effects will make it easier for them to make supportive decisions for the youth and enhance their well-being. · Promoting Social Reform: Through this study, it will be possible to understand better what problems affect young individuals most at given communities and, therefore, contribute to development of civil society that will be based on principles of social justice and equality. · Enhancing Collective Awareness: By engaging in so, the awareness of the public shall be raised on matters relating to youth such as their pressure hence promoting interrelation within the community. 1.5 Terms Definitions The researcher defines the study terms as follows: · Pathological narcissism forms: refer to the various manifestations or types of unhealthy narcissism. These may include but not limited to an individual who is egocentric, has unstable moods, and is always showing off and blaming other individuals. For the purpose of this study, the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI) is used to operationalize this kind of narcissism. It measures both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism among other dimensions of narcissistic pathology. The scores that the participants will have from this test will show if they have any kind of narcissism. · Cognitive Distortions: This term refers to misrepresentations, or twisted views of real situations or of other individuals' character and intentions, which may affect the appraisals of events. The way in which such distorting lenses makes one see and take the meaning of the surrounding environment is what is referred to as cognitive distortions. For the purpose of this study, cognitive distortions will be taken to mean those irrational thoughts as measured by a Cognitive Distortions Scale (CDS) It is called the cognitive distortion scale because of its ability to measure such thought anomalies as dichotomous thought, overgeneralizing, and emotional deduction. This scale will provide data concerning the level of cognitive distortion in each subject. · Moral Development: It is basically about how an individual matures and grows with time coming to more developed understanding over time regarding what is right or wrong. Ones sense of judgment develops further as they grow older through various social interactions and environmental experiences from which they learn. For the purpose of this study, moral development will be assessed using the Moral Development Scale (MDS), a measure that determines where individuals are at in terms of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning. It shows if a person is at pre-conventional or post-conventional stage thereby indicating their moral development level. 1.6 Literature Review 1.7 Narcissism 1.7.1 Introduction Narcissism, a concept that originated from Greek mythology, is currently seen as a very complex issue whereby one has a personality trait of being arrogant or overly proud, doesn’t take into consideration what others feel and need but on the other hand requiring others to give him or her admiration that is not justified. This broad issue can either be positive or negative and affect how one relates with others around them, their mental health as well as general functioning (8). In history, Sigmund Freud’s groundbreaking publication in 1914 served as the basis for some theoretical concepts concerning the nature of narcissism. According to Freud, narcissism appears firstly as the primary type of self-love which is inherent in every person from his very birth stage and without which he could not grow or even keep on existing. He went on to posit on secondary narcissism whereby an individual reaches a point in their development that they direct all their sexual desires and needs towards themselves hence becoming engulfed by one affair after another 1.7.2 Historical Perspectives on Narcissism Freud identified narcissism as a stage in development that could be advantageous under certain conditions. In his view, normal narcissism functions as an armor for the protection of the ego, which can be seen from the following considerations Nonetheless, he was quick to point out that an exaggerated form of this self-love might turn into a disease that prevents a person from establishing real relationships with others Modern psychology goes beyond Freud to talk about narcissism that is good for adapting and the one that worsens adaptation. According to Heinz Kohut’s self-psychology theory, healthy narcissism is determined by the manner in which young children interact with their primary caregivers and subsequently develop identities that are coherent. He argued that children will develop healthy self-concepts and identities only if those who take care of them all the time give them constant praise and compliment-caregivers. It also fosters favorable psychological attributes, including but not limited to good self-confidence, stable emotional state and effective leadership. 1.7.3 Healthy and Pathological Narcissism According to Kohut, the framework depends on the mirroring and idealizing at childhood which is very crucial in formation of healthy narcissism that will make an individual develop well psychologically. Mirroring refers to the act of care givers reflecting and confirming the truth of the young one’s feelings and thoughts; on the other hand, idealizing is seen as expressing positive regard through offering admiration for the child’s qualities or any other positive trait and rewarding such accomplishments. argued that if an individual’s inherent emotional requirements of admiration and validation are sufficiently provided for, they will develop adaptive narcissistic characteristics like self-esteem and confidence. Modern studies use instruments such as the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) to measure whether someone has a healthy level of self-love or not. For instance, individuals with high scores on NPI’s Authority and Self-Sufficiency subscales are seen as being assertive, self-reliant, and having a lot of belief but they do not cross over into being arrogant. Also, empirical studies have revealed that health narcissism is linked with reduced depression, loneliness, as well as overall negativity in attitude, thus underscoring its role as a cushion for mental wellness. On the contrary, unhealthy narcissism appears when a person does not receive the required admiration or his or her qualities are not given such kind of reinforcement. For example, Otto Kernberg suggested that failure to resolve certain issues during one’s formative years may result in a severe form of narcissism known as pathological narcissism that is characterized by grandiosity, entitlement, and lack empathy. Pathological narcissism is often associated with manipulative tendencies, exploitation of others, and difficulties in forming social connections (9). Treatment of pathological narcissism is highly demanding in clinical practice (10). Therapeutic approaches commonly focus on dealing with core affective vulnerabilities, as well as enhancing empathy and insight so that patients can understand effects of their behavior on others and modify it accordingly. Psychodynamic therapies, cognitive-behavioral techniques, and interpersonal interventions aim to mitigate maladaptive narcissistic traits and promote healthier patterns of relating and self-perception . 1.7.4 Pathological Narcissism Forms a. Overt Narcissism: It is characterized by grandiosity, a continual need for admiration, and a lack of empathy towards others. Individuals exhibiting overt narcissism often present themselves as superior, seeking attention and validation from others (9). This behavior can manifest as arrogance, entitlement, and manipulation. Common traits of overt narcissism include (9,11,12,13). · Grandiosity: An inflated sense of self-importance, often exaggerating achievements and talents. · Admiration is necessary: To feel worthy, individuals must be noticed and approved of by many other individuals. · Absence of empathy: Not being able to understand or be concerned about what other individuals are feeling or needing, taking advantage of them. · Feeling of entitlement: They think that they should be given special treatment. If they are not given this, they will get angry. · Exploitative conduct: Taking advantage of other individuals for one’s ends with little regard for the welfare of these others · Envy and arrogance: Being jealous of others’ properties or achievements but still considering oneself better than them. b. Covert Narcissism: Covert narcissism is a subset of narcissistic personality disorder (NPD). Such people share a lot in common with overt narcissists, but they do it very differently, some even say cunningly (14,15). Overt narcissists are known for their apparent pompousness, and they always ensure that they are the center of attention where they receive maximum admiration, while on the other hand introverted arrogant individuals appear humble on a first look (11) Some characteristics of covert narcissism are as follows (16,17,18) · Fragile self-esteem, reacting strongly to even minor criticism or perceived slights. · A highly entitled self-centered individual who believes that they deserve much without explaining it openly. · They always feel like victims in everything and thus seek pity; they also deny any role played in events that result in harm to others. · Using indirect approaches in communicating their displeasure, including sulking, ignoring others, and giving backhanded compliments. · Inability to know other individuals well because they only see themselves. · Having a jealous and bitter attitude, especially towards the prosperity of others whom they think deserve better than them. Identification of the masked form of narcissism is not easy, given that individuals with this subtype come across as plain and unobtrusive. Nonetheless, their masked vulnerability, grandiosity, and callousness may greatly affect how they relate with others (16) . c. Communal Narcissism: it describes a subtype of narcissism where individuals have an exaggerated sense of their own benevolence and selflessness (19). Unlike traditional narcissism, characterized by a focus on personal achievement and superiority, communal narcissism derives their self-worth from perceived altruism and generosity towards others (20). Key features of communal narcissism include (19,20,21,22): · Exaggerated altruism: Believing they are exceptionally caring, generous, and self-sacrificing, often seeking recognition and praise for their acts of kindness. · Need for admiration: Strong desire for admiration and validation from others, seeking recognition for their supposed altruistic deeds and becoming resentful if underappreciated. · Ingratiation: Using acts of kindness to ingratiate themselves with others and gain social status or influence, strategically choosing charitable activities that enhance their public image. · Lack of empathy: Despite being generous, such individuals do not have true empathy; they help others because they want to be praised or because they hope to gain something. · They have a low level of vulnerability, e. G., they can easily be hurt by anything, and when you attack someone else’s ego, they become defensive. Narcissists with a communal orientation present unique feature of narcissistic characters but with an overemphasis on being greatly giving and showing much altruism. The analysis reveals that although communal narcissists may seem to be kind, they still have a few symptoms of NPD: demanding others’ respect, ignoring other individuals’ feelings, and being unable to have deep interpersonal relationships (22). d. Collective Narcissism: Collective narcissism can be described as a psychological phenomenon in which individuals have very high self-esteem looking at their own party as the best one which is also greatly attached to it to such an extent that it cannot be compared with others (23). The difference between individual and collective narcissism is that the first one is about feeling better than others while the second suggests that an individual believes in group’s greatness and unique character (24) Some of the main features of collective narcissism are as follows (23,24,25,26): · Group superiority. · Entitlement. · Perceived victimization. · Intergroup hostility. · Need for external validation. · Group identity fusion. Collective narcissism can significantly impact intergroup relations, social cohesion, and conflict resolution. While a moderate level of group pride and identification can be healthy, excessive collective narcissism may contribute to negative outcomes such as prejudice, intergroup conflict, and societal division. Recognizing and addressing collective narcissism is important for promoting positive intergroup relations and fostering a more inclusive and equitable society (26) . e. Malignant Narcissism: It is considered the most severe form; malignant narcissism combines traits of narcissistic personality disorder with antisocial behavior. Individuals with malignant narcissism exhibit vindictiveness, sadism, paranoia, and a profound lack of empathy. They engage in manipulative and abusive behaviors, causing significant harm to others without remorse or guilt. The key features of malignant narcissism are. · Extreme Egocentrism and Grandiosity: Individuals with malignant narcissism exhibit an exaggerated sense of self-importance and superiority. They believe they are entitled to special treatment and admiration, often without any merit. · Lack of Empathy: A profound inability to understand or care about the feelings and needs of others. They are often indifferent to the suffering they cause and may even take pleasure in it. · Manipulativeness and Deceit: Highly skilled in manipulating others to achieve their own goals. · Frequently use deceit, charm, and coercion to control and exploit people around them. · Paranoia: Often exhibit paranoid tendencies, suspecting that others are out to harm or undermine them. This paranoia can lead to a preemptive strike mentality, where they attack perceived threats aggressively. · Aggression and Sadism: Display aggressive behavior and may derive pleasure from inflicting pain or suffering on others (sadism). Their aggression can be physical, emotional, or psychological. · Vindictiveness: Highly vengeful, holding grudges and seeking revenge against those they believe have wronged them. This vindictive nature makes them dangerous to cross or confront. · Exploitative Relationships: Form relationships primarily to exploit others for their gain. · These relationships are often short-lived, as they discard people once they are no longer useful. · Lack of Remorse or Guilt: Unaffected by the harm they cause, showing no remorse or guilt for their actions. Their lack of conscience allows them to commit acts that most people would find reprehensible. · Antisocial Behavior: Engages in behaviors that violate societal norms and the rights of others. This includes lying, cheating, stealing, and other forms of misconduct without any regard for consequences. · Charismatic and Charming Facade: Can be extremely charming and charismatic when it serves their purposes. This facade makes it difficult for others to initially recognize their true nature. f. Antagonistic Narcissism: It is characterized by competitiveness, hostility, and a persistent need to outperform others. Individuals with this type of narcissism view social interactions as contests for dominance, displaying aggression and a lack of trust towards others. They may belittle or demean perceived rivals, maintaining a hostile environment that isolates them from potential threats. The key features are: · Competitiveness: Individuals with antagonistic narcissism are highly competitive, constantly seeking to outperform others. They view social interactions as zero-sum games where there are clear winners and losers. · Hostility and Aggression: Displays frequent hostility and aggression towards others. This can manifest as verbal abuse, bullying, or undermining others to assert dominance. · Low Trust and Suspicion: Tend to be distrustful of others, often suspecting ulterior motives. They believe that others are out to get them or compete against them. · Need for Superiority: This describes individuals who feel that they are better than the rest in a way that evinces a great necessity on their part. Their identity issues are dependent on whether they are in a position of being seen as more powerful, intelligent or successful than other individuals. · Lack of Empathy: They do not care about what others feel or want unless such areas can be used to achieve their goals. · Arrogance and Entitlement: They carry themselves with pride and the attitude of entitlement which makes them feel like they deserve some accolades. · Argumentative and Confrontational: This follows them into social settings where they like being in charge. · Dominance in Social Interactions: They’re always quick to interrupt and talk over individuals so that they can have their way in any conversation or social gathering. · Belittling and Demeaning Others: The act of belittling or disrespecting others who are seen as competition or enemies is common with them. · Difficulty Maintaining Relationships: Because they are so hostile and belligerent, it becomes very hard for them to keep friends for long. Therefore, narcissism can range from healthy self-esteem that enhances one’s identity and relationships with others to detrimental personality traits compromising interpersonal interactions (e. entitlement and aggression). On the other hand, narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) refers to a mental health diagnosis characterized by grandiosity, lack of empathy, and pervasive difficulties in functioning that must be assessed and treated by mental health professionals. 1.7.5 Theories Explaining Narcissism Sigmund Freud's early work on narcissism laid the foundation for subsequent theories. Freud (1914) introduced the concept of "primary narcissism," a normal stage in infant development where the child is focused on self-love. He later described "secondary narcissism," where libidinal energy is withdrawn from external objects and redirected toward the self, contributing to pathological narcissism. Freud's drive theory posited that narcissism is rooted in the libidinal economy, where the self becomes the primary object of desire. Understanding the intricate dynamics of narcissism has been a focus of contemporary psychodynamic theories, offering insights into the motivational underpinnings that drive human behavior and shape individuals' sense of self. Departing from the traditional drive model, which posits motivations rooted in innate aggression and sexual desires, recent decades have witnessed a shift toward a more nuanced understanding of narcissism's motivational etiology (27) a. Relational Psychoanalysis: In contrast to the drive model, contemporary relational psychoanalysis emphasizes attachment, mentalization, relational needs, and motivational affective systems (28,29,30,31,32) According to this perspective, human beings strive for self-organization, development, and homeostasis, with biological and emotional forces playing pivotal roles. Optimal development involves fulfilling emotional needs in babies and toddlers for attachment and emotion regulation through reciprocal interactions (33) Object relations theory is integral to this development, particularly emphasizing two-person psychology in newer theories. Implicit working models formed during this phase serve as the blueprint for the "self-as-agent," influencing capacities such as emotion regulation, attachment, mentalizing, reflective functioning, empathizing, and epistemic trust (34).This stage is implicit and experienced through enactment due to infants' absence of speech and symbolic thinking. As language and symbolization capacities grow in preschoolers, the realization of the self as a subject that experiences emotions emerge—the self-as-subject. This stage involves conscious self-experience, separation from, and attachment to significant others. Reasoning capacity increases significantly after the age of seven, leading to the development of the self-as-object and a firmer sense of identity. Self-evaluation and the capacity to experience self-conscious emotions further evolve during this phase (27,35,36). Applying this relational theory to narcissism underscores the central role of chronic frustration in the basic biological need for satisfying reciprocal interactions. Chronic frustration during childhood leads to the development of dysfunctional capacities in emotion regulation, attachment, mentalization, reflective functioning, and empathizing. The self-as-agent may feel more powerless than capable, contributing to narcissistic functioning that impacts both self-regulation and interpersonal behaviors (37). b. Intersubjective Psychoanalysis: Another relatively new psychodynamic theory, intersubjective psychoanalysis, offers additional insights into the dynamics of narcissism (38,39). This theory diverges significantly from the basic need for satisfying reciprocal interactions proposed by relational psychoanalysis. It focuses on the intrapsychic motivation for the intention to relate, adding a layer of depth and complexity to our understanding of narcissism. A significant aspect of narcissism, according to intersubjective psychoanalysis, is the severe impairment of intrinsic motivation to seek closeness and recognize the other as a subject. Another important trait linked with narcissism in this model is disorganized self. Otto Kernberg is considered one of the leading authors on narcissism with his amazing work forming a significant part in the development of the psychoanalytic viewpoint regarding narcissistic personality disorder (NPD). In his work, (40) pointed out that individuals with NPD experience deep down inside them a kind of abnormal grandiosity and at the same time feel very vulnerable or not safe; he proposed that these characteristics represented defenses used by such people against their true underlying worthlessness and emptiness feelings. He used the term "malignant narcissism" to describe an extreme form of narcissism characterized by combining narcissistic, antisocial, paranoid, and sadistic elements. This view reveals that individuals suffering from NPD have a nature that is characterized by being very aggressive and always wanting to take advantage of others, hence, they cannot relate well with other people. Narcissism is also better understood through the works of Donald Winnicott. Winnicott’s study was based on the relationship that exists between a mother and her child at its early stages, and he stated clearly that there should be a "good enough mother" who can assist a child in developing well rounded personality. He proposed the idea of a false self that arises when an individual’s true self does not receive appropriate care during its formative years. In narcissistic people, this fake identity poses as a defense mechanism characterized by superficial attractiveness and pompous nature. Winnicott’s theory brings out the importance of initial interactional encounters towards molding self-concept among individuals diagnosed with NPD. The concept of narcissism has been expanded by Heinz Kohut in self-psychology. The term "self-objects", used by (41) refers to significant others who help in constructing an individual’s personality. Kohut suggested that when there is a disruption in the empathic attune given by the self-object, there would be a disintegration of self-leading to narcissistic pathology. He identified two types of internal structures: the grandiose self and the idealized parental imago, both of which are crucial for a unified sense of identity. Therefore, he emphasized that empathy is crucial, and patients must be cared for like mirrors if they are to get well from this disorder. c. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5): In addition to these psychodynamic perspectives, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), provides a comprehensive framework for diagnosing narcissistic personality disorder (42). According to the DSM-5, NPD is characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy. Symptoms include a grandiose sense of self-importance, fantasies of unlimited success and power, a sense of entitlement, and exploitative behavior in relationships. The DSM-5 criteria emphasize the functional impairments and distress caused by these traits, providing a standardized approach to diagnosis and treatment. 1.8 Cognitive Distortions Cognitive distortions are irrational, biased ways of thinking that can significantly impact an individual's perception of reality. Coined by Aaron T. Beck in the 1960s as part of his pioneering work in cognitive therapy, these distortions are central to the development and maintenance of psychological disorders, particularly depression and anxiety. They are defined as habitual errors in thinking that lead individuals to perceive situations in an overly negative or unrealistic manner, exacerbating mental health issues. There are multiple definitions of cognitive distortions: they are "exaggerated or irrational thoughts that distort a person's perception of reality," "irrational beliefs about oneself, others, and the world that contribute to emotional disturbances," "ways our mind convinces us of something untrue," "faulty thinking patterns common among people with anxiety and depression," "unhelpful thinking patterns contributing to distress or emotional problems," and "biased perspectives on ourselves and the world around us” . 0. Types and Forms of Cognitive Distortions There are different forms that cognitive distortions take, with each representing an illogical way of thought. Some of the standard types are as follows. · All-or-nothing way of thought. · Overgeneralization. · Mental filtering. · Disqualifying the positive. · Jumping to conclusions. · Catastrophizing. · Emotional reasoning. · Should statements. · Labeling and mislabeling. · Personalization. 1.8.2 Cognitive Distortions Components In the development of cognitive distortions, core beliefs, assumptions, and automatic thoughts play an important role. Core beliefs refer to the deeply ingrained ideas that individuals have about themselves, others, and the environment as a result of various experiences they have undergone over the years, particularly in childhood. Examples of positive core beliefs are: "I am capable" and "People are generally good". On the other hand, negative core beliefs may be "I am not loved" or "The universe is not safe". These negative core beliefs usually result in cognitive distortions since they make us misinterpret data through a certain way that is prejudiced by these beliefs. For instance, an individual who has a core belief that they are not lovable may engage in all-or-nothing considering where every form of critique is taken as proof that one is completely unworthy of being loved. Assumptions refer to conditional rules or expectations which are derived from core beliefs in order to direct one’s behavior and thought patterns towards defending oneself from the truth contained in such core belief. For example, someone with the core belief "I am unlovable" might develop an assumption like "If I am imperfect, then individuals won’t like me", which in turn gives rise to distortions such as "should" statements (e. G., "I should always be perfect"). By considering this, someone believes that he or she is incompetent and assumes that if he or she makes a mistake, individuals will say that he or she is incompetent. This kind of quick way of thinking reflects a negativity bias and is also known as "catastrophizing". The way core beliefs, assumptions, and automatic thoughts interact forms a cognitive structure determining one’s interpretation and reaction towards experiences, hence sustaining cognitive distortions. Such negative core beliefs give rise to maladaptive assumptions that culminate into negative automatic thoughts, therefore feeding distorted sense of reality. For example, an individual who holds the belief "I am undeserving" may take for granted that "When I fail to excel always, it means I am nothing"; hence this will lead to automatic thoughts like, "I have done everything wrong in this presentation; I’m sure everyone sees that I’m incompetent". 1.8.3 The Impact of Core Beliefs on Cognitive Distortions Core beliefs profoundly influence cognitive distortions, shaping how individuals interpret experiences and interact with the world. Negative core beliefs, such as "I am unworthy" or "I am incompetent," bias perceptions and lead to distorted thinking patterns. These distortions manifest in various ways, including mental filtering, all-or-nothing thinking, and overgeneralization, where individuals selectively focus on negative aspects, exaggerate failures, and make sweeping conclusions based on limited evidence. Such cognitive distortions are perpetuated through automatic thoughts and reinforce negative cycles of emotions and behaviors, ultimately reinforcing the original negative core beliefs. Understanding this interplay is crucial in cognitive-behavioral therapy to promote healthier thought patterns and emotional well-being. Core beliefs influence cognitive distortions by the following processes: · Filtering Information: Core beliefs act as filters through which we interpret experiences. Holding a negative core belief like "I am unworthy" can lead to interpreting neutral or positive events negatively, known as "mental filtering," focusing only on negative aspects while disregarding positives. · Biasing Thought Patterns: Negative core beliefs predispose individuals to think in ways that reinforce these beliefs. For instance, someone believing "I am incompetent" might engage in "all-or-nothing thinking," seeing any minor mistake as complete failure, thus reinforcing their core belief. · Forming Dysfunctional Assumptions: Core beliefs give rise to assumptions dictating conditional rules for living. For example, believing "I am unlovable" may lead to assuming "If I am not perfect, people will reject me," fostering cognitive distortions like "should statements." · Generating Automatic Thoughts: Core beliefs and assumptions influence automatic thoughts in response to situations, often manifesting as cognitive distortions. For instance, someone with the core belief "I am a failure" might automatically think "I will never succeed at anything," an example of "overgeneralization." · Perpetuating Negative Cycles: Cognitive distortions fueled by negative core beliefs create self-reinforcing cycles. Distorted thinking triggers negative emotions and behaviors that reinforce original negative beliefs. For example, catastrophizing minor setbacks may lead to risk avoidance, reinforcing the belief of incapability. 1.8.4 Impacts of Cognitive Distortions on Mental Health The mental condition is significantly affected by cognitive distortions, which have an impact on the thought process, feelings, and behavior. Such distortions lead to psychological problems. Depression and anxiety disorders by increased negativity such as sorrow, terror or even anger, among victims. Take, for instance, if someone is always in the habit of thinking that the worst is going to happen, then he/she will be prone to experiencing acute anxiety over time, which could subsequently result in maladaptive behaviors (for instance, avoidance or aggression). These errors vitiate problem-solving and judgment because affected persons view things in a negative light due to their distorted views. Distortions also result in self-defeating behaviors such as procrastination or self-sabotage that serve to strengthen negativity. Ultimately, these make it difficult for individuals to cope with various problems in life as they affect self-esteem and resistance capacities (43)(81). To sum it up, psychotherapists must prioritize studying and dealing with cognitive distortions which will otherwise improve personal health by using cognitive restructuring among other approaches. Through identification and alteration of these distorted thought patterns, individuals can develop better ways of thinking as well as increase their level of emotional control; this will then translate into improved mental health altogether. 1.8.5 Theoretical Perspectives Explaining Cognitive Distortions In the field of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), Donald Meichenbaum, Aaron Beck, and Albert Ellis have different opinions regarding cognitive distortions: · Donald Meichenbaum: he views cognitive distortions as maladaptive cognitive processes that contribute to psychological distress, particularly in the context of trauma and stress. At times, the leader in cognitive therapy has written much on cognitive distortions. According to him, cognitive distortions refer to those ways of thought processes that are described as being neither sensible nor logical since they vitiate or affect the person's judgment. He came up with certain cognitive distortions that are usually seen in many individuals, such as the all-or-nothing way of thinking, overgeneralization, and catastrophizing. His form of cognitive therapy seeks to first spot these distortions, secondly disconfirm them logically, and lastly replace the original ones with new ones that make more sense. Within his approach to therapy, there is a principle of cooperation between the therapist and patient which is aimed at checking and changing mistaken views. · Aaron Beck is referred to as the father of cognitive therapy and is best known for his work on cognitive distortions. When you look at it from his perspective, cognitive distortions are described as automatic biases of way of thought that make individuals see what is not there in the real world. Betraying Trust by Being Overly Paranoid. Changing these with more adaptive ones is at the core of his cognitive psychotherapeutic approach, which is characterized by a collaborative kind of empiricism between the therapist and the patient aimed at testing and changing erroneous beliefs. · Albert Ellis: he developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which also addresses cognitive distortions but from a slightly different perspective. Ellis focuses on irrational beliefs as the core source of emotional disturbance. He identified specific irrational beliefs, such as demandingness (rigid beliefs about how things must be), awfulizing (viewing situations as unbearable or catastrophic), and low frustration tolerance (believing one cannot tolerate difficult situations). Ellis emphasizes disputing these irrational beliefs and replacing them with rational, adaptive beliefs through cognitive restructuring. REBT aims to help individuals develop more flexible and rational thinking patterns, thereby reducing emotional distress and promoting psychological well-being. Albert Ellis developed the ABCDE model as a core component of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). This model provides a structured framework for understanding how irrational beliefs lead to emotional and behavioral consequences: · A - Activating Event: The first component, A, represents an activating event or situation that triggers an emotional response. This could be anything from a specific incident, such as receiving criticism or facing a challenging task, to an ongoing circumstance like a difficult relationship or work stress. Ellis emphasized that it's not the event itself but our interpretation of it that leads to emotional disturbance. · B - Beliefs: Following the activating event, B stands for beliefs. Ellis identified two types of beliefs: rational and irrational. Rational beliefs are flexible, logical, and based on evidence, while irrational beliefs are rigid, unrealistic, and often lead to emotional distress. Examples of irrational beliefs include demandingness (e.g., "I must always succeed"), awfulizing (e.g., "It's terrible when things don't go my way"), and low frustration tolerance (e.g., "I can't stand it when things are difficult"). · C - Consequences: The beliefs identified in B lead directly to C consequences. These are the emotional and behavioral responses triggered by irrational beliefs. Emotional consequences can include feelings of anxiety, depression, anger, or guilt. Behavioral consequences may manifest as avoidance, procrastination, aggression, or other maladaptive behaviors. Ellis argued that it's not the activating event itself but the irrational beliefs about the event that primarily determine emotional and behavioral outcomes. · D - Disputing: In the fourth step, D, Ellis introduced disputing irrational beliefs. This involves challenging and questioning the validity of irrational beliefs identified in step B. Therapists using REBT help clients dispute these beliefs by encouraging them to examine the evidence supporting and refuting their irrational thoughts. Some of these may be through requesting proof, looking at other angles and determining what will happen if one continues to hold on to irrational beliefs. · E - Effective new way of thought: Once irrational beliefs are disputed and challenged, E represents effective new thought. In this step, irrational beliefs are gotten rid of and replaced with sensible ones. Customers learn to take on reasonable, adaptable, and evidence-based beliefs that enhance emotional strength and health. This type of new thought helps individuals recognize their strengths, recognize imperfection as normal, and develop better ways of interpreting the meaning and implications of life events. · F - New Feelings and Behaviors: Finally, F stands for new feelings and behaviors. Subsequently, through this process of changing irrational beliefs to rational ones, individuals witness adaptive modifications in their emotional and behavioral responses. They may experience reduced levels of anxiety or depression; take part in more adaptive coping strategies as well as healthier decision-making. The ABCDE model in REBT underscores the significance of cognitive restructuring for sustainable emotional and behavioral change by promoting individual empowerment vis-vis adaptive coping responses with life stressors. 1.9 Moral Development Moral development can be conceptualized as cultivating behavior regulation based on an internalized system of norms. The focus on these norms is facilitated by cognitive factors, such as knowledge of norms and an understanding of the consequences of norm violations, as well as emotional factors, including the orientation towards emotional feelings about people's behavior. Various theories emphasize different facets of moral development. The traditional normative cognitive approach, rooted in J. Piaget's theory, highlights cognitive and intellectual structures, moral judgments, and moral reasoning (44). These concepts were further developed in L. Kohlberg's theory of moral consciousness (45). However, Kohlberg's theory has faced criticism, leading to the exploration of new perspectives on moral development. One such alternative is the domain theory, as articulated in the works of E. Turiel, which builds upon Kohlberg's ideas. Turiel's domain theory identifies three primary domains of human life: the moral domain, the conventional domain, and the individual domain (46). Investigations into children's ability to differentiate life situations within these domains reveal that many children between the ages of 6 and 7 can accurately categorize them. During middle childhood, a hierarchy of norms develops. Initially, conventional norms take precedence, but by the end of middle childhood, moral norms become more prominent, regulating behavior. In middle childhood, adherence to norms often involves conformity to conventional norms, as these are the behaviors prescribed by adults. This dynamic is influenced by the child's role at this age, where adults serve as organizers and leaders in joint activities, and their decisions form the basis for the child's behavior. Although parents and teachers encourage children to adhere to moral norms, the specific content of these norms may be unclear to the child, resulting in a growing disparity between verbalized moral behavior and actual moral behavior. This phenomenon aligns with the conventional level of moral development in Kohlbergian terms. The modern Russian educational system, as reflected in the new Educational Standards for primary and middle school education, places considerable emphasis on the holistic psychological development of students (47,48). Within these standards, the development of moral orientation is identified as a crucial component of holistic psychological personal development (49). 1.9.1 Components of Moral Development Moral development refers to the process by which children acquire the concepts of right and wrong and develop the ability to regulate their behavior according to societal standards (50) . It serves as a guideline for behavior (51). According to developmental psychologists, morality consists of three interconnected dimensions: moral reasoning (cognition), moral emotions (effect), and moral conduct (behavior) (50,52,53). Moral reasoning, the cognitive aspect of morality, involves understanding the concepts of right and wrong (51,54). For instance, lying, stealing, and cheating are considered wrong, while helping others and sharing are right. It also encompasses the justifications made during moral dilemmas (51,54). Moral emotion, the affective aspect, encompasses the feelings and experiences of the child (50,52). Children compare their emotional responses to those of others, ensuring alignment with social norms (50,55). Moral effect includes guilt, discomfort, concern, and empathy following transgressions (56). Moral conduct, the behavioral component, comprises engaging in prosocial behaviors and resisting antisocial behaviors such as stealing (50,52,57) . 1.9.2 Factors of Moral Development Several researchers argue that each dimension of moral development develops independently, and only as the child matures and schemas grow do these dimensions interact (53). Instead of a unitary process, distinct pathways exist through which moral emotion, conduct, and cognition develop. However, the interrelatedness of these dimensions is beyond the scope of this article (58). Moral cognition involves justifying moral or immoral acts (51). Researchers relieve tasks such as the Defining Issues Task and the Moral Judgments Test to assess moral cognition through hypothetical dilemmas (59). Moral cognition is often discussed in terms of schemas, mental representations of events and experiences (50). Schemas organize information, allowing children to make sense of novel situations and build on each other to incorporate more sophisticated rules for complex events (50). Children often understand societal rules and norms, but their moral reasoning can vary. Young children tend to rely on 'external loci of control,' seeking cues from parents or authority figures and responding in terms of blame and punishment (50). As children grow older, their moral understanding becomes more sophisticated. They begin to prioritize concepts such as "upholding laws" and "considering the feelings of others," with some grasping abstract ideas like "the golden rule" (50). The ability to self-regulate is viewed as one of the earliest indicators of moral development, emerging within the first 12 to 36 months of life (52,60,61,62). Self-regulation progresses from regulation in the presence of caregivers to self-control without their presence, ultimately enabling children to adapt their behavior to different environments (52,60,61,62). Late infancy through preschool age is deemed critical for self-regulation development. (61) conducted a longitudinal study over four years, assessing compliance in 108 children during committed and situational situations. Committed compliance reflects children embracing and self-regulating maternal directives, while situational compliance involves cooperation without the wholehearted endorsement of maternal directives (61). 1.9.3 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on Piaget's work by proposing a theory of moral development that delineates six stages, grouped into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional (45). According to, every stage can be differentiated on the basis of moral reasoning which becomes more sophisticated as well as complex involving ethical principles and moral dilemmas. a. Pre-conventional Level: · Stage 1—Obedience and punishment orientation: In this stage, moral decisions involve evading punishment and following the authority's orders. · Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange: Here, moral decisions revolve around self-interest and reciprocity. B. b. Conventional Level: · Stage 3—interpersonal relationships: In stage three, moral decisions center on following what is right in accordance with society’s expectations and getting some kind of approval from others. · Stage 4 - maintaining social order: This is the stage where moral decisions should follow social requirements including laws. C. c. Post-conventional Level: · Stage 5 - Social contract and individual rights: At this level of stage, moral decisions look at social contractual agreements and liberties of an individual including the fact that some rules may not be absolute. · Stage 6 - Universal principles: In stage six, morality determines its course through reasoning based on this general code of ethics or justice. Kohlberg’s theory highlights how individuals move from one stage to another as they grow older, and their moral reasoning becomes more complex. Nonetheless, critics argue that the theory is culturally biased, and it lays too much importance on moral reasoning than on real behavior. 1.9.4 Narcissism, Cognitive Distortions, and Moral Development Narcissism involves being very important, having privileges and not caring about others, and affects greatly an individual’s self-view and identity as well as his relationship with the greater society. This kinds of individuals will always believe about what seems best for them and what will make them be admired by others before looking at ethics. At the same time, cognitive distortions like, all-or-nothing way of thought as well as focusing only on certain details, serve to worsen the situation by manipulating reality and shoring up that self-image. Some theories state that narcissism together with cognitive distortions may block the development of morals because they generate egocentric attitudes that support invalidating acts (63). People with high levels on these personality dimensions may not easily see the point of their counterparts as they would be too busy trying to see how they can benefit more than they were supposed to from any given interaction. On top of that, ethical reasoning is misled by such distortions; hence one will end up giving some lame excuses for his actions, but the bottom line should be that he has acted wrong. One can only comprehend this concept through evaluating factors that affect distortion of personal judgment and improvement on self-image alone at the expense of ethics. For instance, individuals who have higher levels of narcissism are likely not to make moral judgment calls based on what they believe is right or wrong but rather focus on how they could manipulate such events so as to promote their self-image and increase their social status. (63). The above demonstrates how complex ethical decision-making is under the influence of narcissism, cognitive distortions and morality thus justifying the necessity of taking specific measures. Such measures might involve challenging and changing distorted noting common in narcissistic and psychopathological condition through cognitive-behavioral approach as suggested by. Another way is to facilitate perspective taking and increase empathy so that individuals can reason morally well and remember that ethics matter too (45). Therefore, through targeting these underlying psychological processes, interventions can develop a deeper level of understanding in relation to morals as far as behavior is concerned. 1.10 Previous Studies 1.10.1 Relationship between Narcissism and Cognitive Distortions In the study conducted by (64), the aim was to explore the relationship between Narcissistic Personality Syndrome (NPS) and schema modes, which refer to the predominant emotional state, schemas, and coping responses active for an individual at a particular time. The participants comprised 25 clients who completed the Schema Mode Inventory and 25 clinicians who assessed NPS using the Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure. The study revealed a significant correlation between NPS and a lack of frustration tolerance (undisciplined child mode). There were no significant associations found with self-aggrandizement (self-aggrandizer mode), intense anger (angry child and enraged child modes), or compulsive engagement in distracting activities (detached self-soother mode). (65) conducted a study to understand how narcissistic individuals perceive their interactions with themselves and others. Two groups were formed, one with high grandiose narcissism (GN) and another with highly vulnerable narcissism (VN) from a larger sample, though the population size was not specified. The study aimed to explore the dimensions of narcissism concerning participants' responses and their partners' responses, particularly focusing on behavioral, cognitive, and emotional aspects. To assess narcissistic characteristics, the researchers employed the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI). The study revealed that the vulnerable group gave more complementary responses emotionally and made more complementary predictions regarding the expected reactions from their romantic partners compared to the grandiose group. The study by (66) aimed to investigate the relationship between pathological narcissism, interpersonal cognitive distortions, and workplace bullying among nurses. They employed a cross-sectional design to analyze responses from 236 nurses through an online survey. Key variables were measured using the Pathological Narcissism Inventory, Interpersonal Cognitive Distortions Scale, Positive Nursing Organizational Culture Measurement Tool, and The Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised. The study found that pathological narcissism had the most significant effect on workplace bullying among nurses, followed by positive organizational culture, interpersonal cognitive distortions, marital status, and position. The study by (67) aimed to investigate the differences between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and their associations with various cognitive components. The researchers conducted correlational analyses and utilized structural equation modeling (SEM), specifically pathway analysis, to examine the relationships between maladaptive schemas (entitlement, vulnerability, emotional deprivation), cognitive evaluation systems (self-esteem, systemizing-empathizing), and narcissism. The study involved researchers from the University of Pecs and utilized several measures to assess the constructs of interest. Results indicated that early maladaptive schemas significantly influenced the development of narcissism and the empathizing system. Different subtypes of narcissism had varying effects on self-esteem, while gender and age had minor effects on both self-esteem and the empathizing system. The findings hold implications for counseling and clinical practice. (68) conducted research on self-concept in narcissism, with a specific focus on profile comparisons of narcissistic manifestations on facets of the self. The country where the study was conducted was not mentioned, and the population was not specified. The research examined both adaptive and pathological narcissistic traits in a community sample of adults. This investigation assessed self-uniqueness, self-authenticity, self-consistency, and self-other comparisons on agentic and communal domains. However, the sample size and demographic variables were not detailed. The study reported distinctive profiles of adaptive and pathological narcissistic manifestations, with some facets of self-playing a more prominent role in each narcissistic manifestation. The study also discussed the implications for theory and research. On the other hand, (69) investigated the relationships between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, perceived parental rearing styles, and defense mechanisms. They aimed to determine how narcissism scores differed based on demographic variables such as gender and age. The study included 508 participants aged 18-65, with data collected through various measures, including the Pathological Narcissism Inventory and the Defense Style Questionnaire-40. Results indicated that male participants had significantly higher scores in grandiose narcissism, while there was no significant difference in vulnerable narcissism scores between genders. Both forms of narcissism decreased with increasing age. Regression analyses revealed associations between narcissism scores and perceived parental attitudes, as well as defense styles. The study provided insights into the theoretical framework of narcissism and its implications for clinical practice. The study by (70) investigated the relationship between pathological narcissistic traits and shame in community samples, considering narcissism from multiple perspectives and utilizing various operationalizations of the constructs. Study 1 focused on validating the Italian version of the Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2 (PFQ-2) in a cross-sectional sample, finding sensible associations between shame- and guilt-proneness and criterion measures. Study 2 analyzed associations between pathological narcissism (grandiose and vulnerable) and shame-proneness, revealing that trait grandiose narcissism was associated with reduced shame-proneness. In contrast, a trait of vulnerable narcissism was associated with heightened shame-proneness. Study 3, a daily diary study, explored experiences of shame about different measures of pathological narcissism, highlighting trait grandiose narcissism as a consistent predictor of daily shame. The results underscored the key role of shame in pathological narcissistic functioning. The study conducted by (71) aimed to examine pathological narcissism in adolescents and young adults. This research was conducted without specifying a particular country, focusing on participants from the community. The study's sample of 570 participants aged 14 to 21 who completed an online survey. Pathological narcissism was assessed using the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. The researchers also assessed psycho-social difficulties through the Child Behaviour Checklist and maltreatment with the Childhood Experiences of Care and Abuse Questionnaire. Notably, this study identified gender-specific age trends in narcissism, with narcissism decreasing with age for females and increasing for males into early adulthood. Furthermore, the study found that vulnerable and grandiose narcissism in females was associated with maltreatment and partially mediated the relationship between abuse and neglect and internalizing and externalizing difficulties. (8) conducted a comprehensive review to address pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD). The study explored the clinical presentation of NPD, diagnostic challenges, and co-occurring psychopathologies. The researchers revealed that major depressive disorder was the most common comorbid disorder in patients with pathological narcissism or NPD. The review proposed a collaborative and exploratory diagnostic approach focusing on patient engagement, curiosity, narration, and self-reflection. On the other hand, (72) examined the influence of pathological narcissism on emotional and motivational responses to adverse events. Their study utilized a randomized, two-wave experimental design with 600 community participants. They found that grandiose pathological narcissism was associated with increased negative effects and less forgiveness for public offenses. In contrast, vulnerable narcissism was associated with increased negative effects following private adverse events. Concerns about humiliation mediated the association of pathological narcissism with increased negative effects. 1.10.2 Relationship between Narcissism and Moral Development (73) conducted research to explore the correlation between accounting students' moral development and narcissism concerning academic fraud. Using a quantitative survey method, the study aimed to determine how moral development levels and narcissistic traits among accounting students influence academic fraud. The sample comprised 46 accounting students selected through random sampling. The findings revealed a significant impact of narcissism on accounting students' engagement in academic fraud. However, the study did not find any correlation between the level of moral development and academic fraud. (74) study investigated the longitudinal associations between the dark triad of personality, which includes Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism, and antisocial behavior in adolescents. This study was conducted in The Netherlands and included 502 Dutch adolescents, with a majority of boys, across three annual waves. The research aimed to understand the bidirectional associations between the dark triad and antisocial behavior, as well as how changes in moral disengagement might underlie these linkages. The findings revealed that antisocial behavior was positively associated with relative increases in moral disengagement, a general dark personality factor, and Machiavellianism, specifically. Importantly, these associations were more pronounced during the first year of the study and were observed only in boys. Furthermore, antisocial behavior was indirectly related to psychopathy over time via antisocial behavior and moral disengagement at a later time point, suggesting that dark personality characteristics and moral disengagement development are more likely to be influenced by changes in antisocial behavior. (75) aimed to explore the relationship between narcissism and moral conduct, investigating whether narcissists may engage in moral behavior to enhance their public image. They utilized the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) and presented participants with moral scenarios varying in the opportunity for admiration from others. Results indicated that female narcissists were more inclined towards moral conduct compared to male narcissists, with men's interest in moral behavior influenced more by the potential for public admiration. This suggests gender-dependent motivations for moral conduct among narcissists. (76) examined moral development and narcissism among private and public university business students. They aimed to determine if students from private institutions exhibited higher moral and ethical development and whether narcissistic personality traits correlated with moral reasoning. Utilizing the Defining Issues Test version 2 (DIT-2) and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), they found no significant difference in moral reasoning between students from private and public universities. However, private college students showed higher levels of narcissism compared to public college students, with no significant relationship found between narcissism and moral reasoning. (77) investigated the relationships among moral judgment development, narcissism, and electronic media and communication devices (EMCDs). The study aimed to address the potential impact of EMCD usage on moral reasoning and self-presentation, considering the reported trends of increased narcissism among college students and the influence of technology on social decision-making. Analyses indicated that the extent and reasons for EMCD usage contribute to decreased Postconventional reasoning but have a negligible effect on Personal Interests reasoning. 1.10.3 Relationship between Cognitive Distortions and Moral Development This cross-sectional study by (78) aimed to investigate the relationship between moral intelligence and cognitive distortions among employees of the Mazandaran Welfare Organization. A total of 283 individuals were selected using the cluster sampling method. Data was collected through the Moral Competency Inventory (MCI) questionnaire and the Cognitive Distortions Inventory (CDI). Data analysis involved linear regression and Pearson correlation tests. The findings revealed a significant correlation between moral intelligence and cognitive distortions, with moral intelligence explaining 28.5% of the variance in cognitive distortions. The study suggests that individuals with higher moral competencies may be less prone to interpreting facts based on personal categorizations and more likely to consider situational aspects in their judgments. (79) study investigates the longitudinal relationships between moral cognitions (self-serving cognitive distortions, moral judgment, perception of community) and antisocial behavior in young adolescents. The sample consisted of 724 students from prevocational secondary schools in the Netherlands. Data was collected twice at a four-month interval using self-reports and teacher reports. The findings reveal positive associations between self-serving cognitive distortions and antisocial behavior and between moral judgment and perception of community. Negative associations were found between the perception of community and both self-serving cognitive distortions and antisocial behavior. Longitudinal structural equation models demonstrate moderate to high moral cognitions and antisocial behavior stability, indicating that self-reported antisocial behavior precedes self-serving cognitive distortions. The study discusses the implications of these findings for preventing and treating antisocial behavior. 1.10.4 Critique the Previous Studies The relationship between cognitive distortions and moral development has been investigated in literature. Many researchers have tried to find out if the two variables are connected or if they influence each other. For instance, (64,66,67) conducted studies that employed strong statistical tools like SEM alongside standardized questionnaires to tackle this issue. These works provide us with some complex understanding on how narcissistic traits can distort an individual’s thoughts such that he or she ends up with unique emotional problems. Nonetheless, there are limitations in a few studies which reduce their generality. For example, some research did not provide detailed information about the demographics or sample sizes used in the studies, such as those done by (68,69). Due to this fact, such research cannot be easily used to make conclusions that cut across a wide range of individuals or situations. The research community has also explored moral development concerning narcissism using various approaches, including those from. These ones have gone beyond health and moral philosophy to also look at broader implications concerning morality within society, especially looking at how moral judgment can be seen through healthy or moral illusions. Nonetheless, just like in study, there remain weaknesses within certain quarters of these research when analyzing the correlation between narcissism with moral development. The absence of significant results from such studies points out that we need more sophisticated approaches, including certain intervening variables, which might help clarify this issue further. In comparison to studies by (78,79), other researchers might consider that they found strong points in analyzing the relationship among variables. These research reveals that there is a greater association between moral reasoning and cognitive distortions such as biased attributes, as well as moral disengagement, considering some cultural factors which affect individuals differently depending on their stage in growth. 1.10.5 Unique Aspects of the Current Study Particular attention was paid in this study to the youth living in Palestinian territories, given that they form a unique cultural group with distinct demographics. The study is unique and presents an integration of pathological narcissism, cognitive distortions, moral development, and demographic variables, which only a few studies have done. Precisely put, this research is related to narcissism like others, but it studies a special group and examines how narcissism links with other psycho-social variables in Palestine such as cognitive distortions, morality and demographic characteristics. This study adds knowledge to what is already known because of where it was done and how all-encompassing it was. Chapter Two Method 2.1 Introduction The methodology used by the researcher is explained in this chapter, which includes the statistics taken, instruments used for the study, variables that were taken into consideration, and the step-by-step procedure followed in achieving the objectives of the study. It also outlines the research design comprehensively and describes the characteristics of the sample in detail. 2.2 Study design The study at hand employed a quantitative cross-sectional correlational descriptive design to establish the association that exists among some variable, which includes Pathological Narcissism forms, Cognitive distortion, and moral development of the Palestinian youth living in Palestine (1948). This work included the distribution of questionnaires aimed at gauging the presence of certain factors of narcissism (pathological narcissism), as well as cognitive distortions and moral levels in a given homogeneous public of Palestinians under Israeli occupation. The participants responded to questions that evaluated these constructions. Afterwards, the collected information was subjected to different statistical procedures for the purpose of evaluating not only the mean and severity of narcissism forms, cognitive distortions and moral development but also the association between those variables. Additionally, it was analyzed if there were any mean differences in pathological narcissism forms, cognitive distortions, and moral development with respect to demographics like gender, age, education level, place of residence, and marital status. 2.3 Study population The population for this study comprised individuals aged 15 years and above, living in Palestine (1948). Participants came from diverse gender identities, educational backgrounds, and marital statuses. According to data from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (2023) and the (80), approximately two-thirds of the population in these regions, totaling 2,450,000 citizens, are aged 15 and above. 2.4 Sampling and sample size The current study employed a convenient sampling method, resulting in the selection of (67) participants. In correlational studies, there is no consensus on the optimal sample size or the approach for calculating it. The appropriate sample size depends on various factors. However, some researchers suggest guidelines or rules of thumb. For correlational studies, a common recommendation is to have a sample size of at least (100) to (200) participants (81,82,83,84). Therefore, a sample size of 120 is sufficient to conduct the current study. Consequently, a total of 120 respondents (58.3% females and 41.7% males) took part in the research and completed the online survey. Using Google Forms, the researcher created an online questionnaire and shared its link through social media platforms and tools. All participants were from the Palestinian territories, with a mean age of (32.9) years (SD = 18.44, range = 15-45 years). Table (1) provides an overview of the sociodemographic characteristics of the participants in this study. Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants in the current study (n = 120) Gender Frequency Percentage Male 50 41.7 Female 70 58.3 Age 15-19 50 41.7 20-29 47 39.2 30-39 10 8.3 ≥ 40 13 10.9 Education Secondary school and less 59 49.2 Diploma and Bachelor 45 37.5 M.A. and Ph.D. 16 13.3 Marital status Single 69 57.5 Married 43 35.8 Other 8 6.7 Place of residence City 106 88.3 Village 14 11.7 3.5 Instrumentation In this study, three scales, namely pathological narcissism forms scale [PNFS], inventory of cognitive distortions [ICD], and sociomoral reflection objective measure [SROM], were utilized. The subsequent section provides detailed descriptions for each of these scales. A. The Pathological Narcissism Forms Scale (PNFS) PNFS is a self-report measure designed to assess the severity and types of pathological narcissism. The researcher constructed the PNFS by deriving its items from both overt and covert narcissism (ONS and CNS) as described by (85), the communal narcissism inventory (CNI) developed by (19), and the collective narcissism scale (CNS) introduced by (40). The initial version of the PNFS comprised five-point Likert scale items, with responses ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). For the reversed items, where the scoring is the opposite (i.e., strongly agree = 1, strongly disagree = 5). These items covered four forms or subscales of narcissism as follows: 1. Overt narcissism subscale (ONS): Overt narcissism is characterized by a pattern of behavior marked by grandiosity, a continual need for admiration, and a lack of empathy towards others. Individuals exhibiting overt narcissism often present themselves as superior, seeking attention and validation from others (9). This behavior can manifest as arrogance, entitlement, and manipulation. The ONS items derived from the narcissistic personality inventory (NPI) which was developed by (140) for the measurement of narcissism as a personality trait in social psychological research. and this inventory consisted of (25) items. It is based on the definition of narcissistic personality disorder found in the DSM-III (86). Some common traits of overt narcissism include (9,11,12,13): · Grandiosity: Overt narcissists have an inflated sense of self-importance and often exaggerate their achievements and talents. · Need for admiration: They constantly seek praise, admiration, and attention from others to validate their self-worth. · Lack of empathy: Overt narcissists struggle to understand or care about the feelings and needs of others, often exploiting them to fulfill their own desires. · Sense of entitlement: They believe they deserve special treatment and may react angrily if they feel they are not receiving it. · Exploitative behavior: Overt narcissists may take advantage of others to achieve their own goals, disregarding the well-being of those they exploit. · Envy and arrogance: They may envy others' success or possessions while simultaneously believing they are superior to them. 2. Covert narcissism subscale (CNS): Covert narcissism is a subtype of narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) where individuals exhibit many of the same characteristics as overt narcissists, but in a more subtle and concealed manner (29, 30) While overt narcissists typically display outward grandiosity and actively seek attention and admiration, covert narcissists tend to be more introverted and may appear modest or unassuming on the surface (26). The ONS items derived from the narcissistic personality inventory (NPI) which was developed by (86) for the measurement of narcissism as a personality trait in social psychological research and this inventory consisted of items. It is based on the definition of narcissistic personality disorder found in the DSM-III (86). Traits associated with covert narcissism include (31-33): · Hypersensitivity to criticism: Covert narcissists often have fragile self-esteem and react strongly to even minor criticism or perceived slights. · Self-absorption: While covert narcissists may not openly boast about their accomplishments like overt narcissists, they still possess a strong sense of entitlement and believe they deserve special treatment. · Victim mentality: Covert narcissists frequently portray themselves as victims, seeking sympathy and validation from others while deflecting responsibility for their actions. · Passive-aggressive behavior: Instead of directly confronting others, covert narcissists may employ passive-aggressive tactics such as sulking, giving silent treatment, or making backhanded compliments. · Lack of empathy: Like overt narcissists, covert narcissists struggle to understand or empathize with the feelings and needs of others. · Envy and resentment: Covert narcissists may harbor envy and resentment towards those they perceive as more successful or fortunate; while simultaneously believing they deserve similar success. Identifying covert narcissism can be challenging, as individuals with this subtype often present themselves as humble or self-effacing. However, their underlying need for admiration, entitlement, and lack of empathy can still significantly impact their relationships and interactions with others (31). 3. Communal narcissism subscale (COMNS): Communal narcissism is a term used to describe a subtype of narcissism where individuals have an exaggerated sense of their own benevolence and selflessness (19) (34). Unlike traditional narcissism, which is characterized by a focus on personal achievement and superiority, communal narcissists derive their self-worth from their perceived altruism and generosity towards others (20). The COMNS items derived from the communal narcissism inventory for (19) and this inventory consisted of items. Here are some key features of communal narcissism (19,20,21,22): · Exaggerated altruism: Communal narcissists are individuals who believe that they are very compassionate, giving and selfless. They may go to great lengths to help others, often seeking recognition and praise for their acts of kindness. · Need for admiration: Like other kinds of narcissism, communal narcissism is characterized by the need for an excessive amount of attention and approval from others. They may seek accolades for their presumed acts of altruism and become bitter if they feel disregarded. · Ingratiation: Communal narcissists may use their acts of kindness to please some important individuals so that they can be in a better social position, but which may lack sincerity. It is possible that they may engage in acts that serve to improve their public image and make them appear more generous than they really are. · Lack of empathy: Communal narcissists’ display of kindness may be insincere as it does not arise out of caring about other individuals’s welfare. The urge of being praised or valued could be the cause of their apparently kind deeds, and as it is these acts of kindness could be insincere. · Boundary issues: This shows when the communal narcissist fails to recognize personal space and, in most cases, violates it while providing assistance. They may impose their assistance on others without considering whether it is wanted or appropriate. · Vulnerability to criticism: Although they appear selfless and kind, communal narcissists are likely to take offense at any form of criticism or doubt regarding their intentions. For instance, they may view any attempt to question their altruistic fade as an attack on their self-worth. In summary, communal narcissism represents a distinct expression of narcissistic traits revolving around an inflated view of one’s generosity and benevolence. Although portraying themselves as kindhearted individuals, communal narcissists can still have some features of narcissistic personality disorder like admiration seeking, empathy lack, and problems in establishing true relationships with others. 4. Collective narcissism subscale (COLNS): According to (23), collective narcissism is a psychological trait in which individuals feel elevated levels of pride and connection to their ethnicity or community and see their own group as superior. It differs from individual narcissism that is characterized by the pursuit of personal greatness since collective narcissism relates to the perceived greatness and entitlement of the group as a whole. The COLNS items were derived from the collective narcissism scale for (25), and this scale consisted of 9 items. Here are some key characteristics of collective narcissism (23,24,25,26): · Group superiority: Individuals high in collective narcissism believe that their group is inherently superior to other groups in terms of values, achievements, or characteristics. Such individuals might show a high level of pride in their group’s identity and history. · Entitlement: Collective narcissists feel entitled to special treatment and recognition for their group's perceived superiority. They may expect preferential treatment or privileges based on their group membership. · Perceived victimization: Collective narcissists often perceive their group as being unfairly treated or discriminated against by others. They may exaggerate or distort instances of perceived injustice to reinforce their group's victim status. · Intergroup hostility: High levels of collective narcissism can lead to intergroup hostility and conflict, as individuals may view out-group members as threats to their group's superiority. This can contribute to prejudice, discrimination, and aggression towards members of other groups. · Need for external validation: Collective narcissists seek external validation and affirmation of their group's superiority from both in-group and out-group members. They may become defensive or hostile in response to challenges to their group's greatness. · Group identity fusion: Collective narcissism is often associated with a strong sense of group identity fusion, where individuals perceive themselves as deeply connected to and inseparable from their group. This fusion contributes to a heightened sense of group cohesion and loyalty. Collective narcissism can have significant implications for intergroup relations, social cohesion, and conflict resolution. Even though there is a reasonable amount of pride and association within a group that is healthy, too much collective narcissism results in racism, conflicts between different social groups as well as separation of communities. It is important to identify and combat collective narcissism so that we can enhance positive intergroup relationships and create a fair and inclusive society (26) (41). The current study involved modifying the PNFS so that it can be used in Arab cultural settings. This was done based on the guidelines for translation and adaptation provided by. Such recommendations consist of five main steps, which are preparation, translation and back-translation, pretesting, revision, and documentation. Five professionals affiliated with An-Najah National University (ANNU), specializing in psychology, Arabic language, English language respectively, critically examined the translated Arabic version of PNFS. After this examination, the study team administered the Arabic-translated PNFS to a pilot group that included thirteen participants from Palestine (1948). This was aimed at determining whether the questions in the questionnaire were clear, readable and understandable enough. PNFS validity: Two methods were employed to assess the validity of the PNFS, as follows: a. The judge's validity: Sex experts from the Department of Psychology and Counseling at ANNU reviewed the Arabic edition of PNFS. The feedback from these experts recommended that there should be rephrasing in some of the items that were not clear and that some text needed to be paraphrased so that it can be easily understood by the study participants. It is important to note that all scale items of the Arabic PNFS were retained as per the judges’ suggestions; no item was deleted. b. The construct validity: Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to evaluate the construct validity of the PNFS on an exploratory sample of 120 participants, comprising 50 males and 70 females. EFA was conducted using principal components analysis with the Promax rotation method. Following the guidelines and recommendations outlined by (87) (142) , the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was computed to ensure the dataset's adequacy and sufficiency for factor analysis, with a minimum threshold of 0.60. Moreover, particular attention was given to the significance of the Chi-square (χ2) value in Bartlett's Test of Sphericity to confirm the data's suitability for factor analysis. (87) (142) suggested that the following conditions could produce distinct and pure factors: · Removal of items with loadings below 0.40. · Elimination of items loading on multiple factors with loadings differing by less than 0.20. · Each factor should comprise at least three items. In the PNFS, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy was (0.71), and the Bartlett test (χ2 (120) = 5194.84, p < .001) indicated significant sampling adequacy for performing EFA. Following the guidelines of (87) (142), the EFA revealed a four-factor solution. The four obtained factors (66 items out of 75 items) with an Eigenvalue of more than one explained (57.71%) of the total variance, indicating good construct validity for the scale. Based on the analysis, items were found to reflect different types of narcissism. Additionally, all items had communalities greater than 0.30, ranging from 0.31 to 0.64 (See Table 2). Table 2 Items' communalities in the PNFS Item Communality Item Communality Item Communality 1. 0.54 23. 0.36 45. 0.35 2. 0.41 24. 0.33 46. 0.42 3. 0.64 25. 0.48 47. 0.41 4. 0.39 26. 0.35 48. 0.61 5. 0.40 27. 0.34 49. 0.43 6. 0.53 28. 0.34 50. 0.33 7. 0.55 29. 0.47 51. 0.44 8. 0.52 30. 0.49 52. 0.42 9. 0.42 31. 0.31 53. 0.61 10. 0.32 32. 0.43 54. 0.61 11. 0.44 33. 0.46 55. 0.55 12. 0.38 34. 0.41 56. 0.48 13. 0.41 35. 0.52 57. 0.55 14. 0.46 36. 0.41 58. 0.48 15. 0.62 37. 0.59 59. 0.46 16. 0.43 38. 0.47 60.