An-Najah National University 

Faculty of Graduate Studies 

 
SUSTAINABLE URBAN MOBILITY - TRANSIT 

ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT (TOD) 

PERSPECTIVE: 

A PILOT PLANNING APPROACH FOR 

PALESTINIAN CITIES 

 

 

By 

Shifaa Wael Mohammad Mashaqi 

 

 

 

Supervisor 

Prof. Sameer Abu-Eisheh 

 

This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of 

Master of Roads & Transports Engineering, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah 

National University, Nablus - Palestine. 

2024 





III 

Dedication 

To the hearts that beat with prayer, to the always proud souls, to the people of great credit, 

my mother and father. 

To my dearest childhood companions, my beloved ones. My brother and sister 

To the gift of a lifetime that I did not expect, to the coincidence that made us “we”, to my 

inspiration and great certainty, Osaid. 

To the pure souls, companions of all paths, Raya & Raghad 

To all those who gave us dignity and a homeland from under the rubble, our righteous 

martyrs 

To those seeking the paths of knowledge, to every ambitious person.... I dedicate this 

work 

  



IV 

Acknowledgements 

I extend my sincere thanks and great gratitude to everyone who contributed to completion 

of this thesis, with special thanks to the individual with the power of mind and exceptional 

expertise, Professor Sameer Abu-Eisheh, who was supervising this work on at all its 

stages until completion of my thesis. 

I also extend my sincere thanks to my colleagues throughout my studies, especially my 

helpmate husband Osaid for his motivation.    

It is my pleasure to thank Ramallah and Rawabi Municipalities, for their cooperation in 

providing me with the information necessary to conduct this research.  

Finally, I would like to thank the people who were interviewed, who are representatives 

of the relevant institutions and who cooperated with me in giving me information related 

to the topic of the thesis. 

I reiterate my thanks to my parents and family who have been always a source of 

inspiration.  

 

  





VI 

List of Contents 

Dedication ....................................................................................................................... III 

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... IV 

Declaration ....................................................................................................................... V 

List of Contents ............................................................................................................... VI 

List of Tables ............................................................................................................... VIII 

List of Figures ................................................................................................................. IX 

List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... X 

Abstract .......................................................................................................................... XII 

Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 

1.1 Background…………. ............................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Problem Definition…………. ................................................................................... 2 

1.3 Significance of Study………… ................................................................................. 3 

1.4 Objectives of Study………….. .................................................................................. 4 

1.5 Study Area…………… ............................................................................................. 4 

1.6 Methodology of Study…………….. ......................................................................... 5 

1.6.1 Introduction…………………… .............................................................................. 5 

1.6.2 Literature Review……………….. .......................................................................... 6 

1.6.3 Defining Study Area…………………. ................................................................... 7 

1.6.4 Data Collection………………………… ................................................................ 7 

1.6.5 Conducting Interviews………………………. ........................................................ 8 

1.6.6Analysis………………… ........................................................................................ 8 

1.6.7 Recommendation……………………. .................................................................... 9 

1.7 Thesis Structures……………….. .............................................................................. 9 

Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................... 10 

2.1 Chapter Overview……………… ............................................................................ 10 

2.2 TOD Theoretical Background……………. ............................................................ 10 

2.2.1 Concept of TOD…………………. ........................................................................ 10 

2.2.2 The fundamental framework of a Transit-Oriented Development……………… 11 

2.2.3 Planning Principle of TOD………………. ........................................................... 13 

2.3 Studies in Developed Countries………………. ...................................................... 14 

2.3.1 Zurich, Switzerland……………………. ............................................................... 14 



VII 

2.3.2 Phoenix, USA……………………. ....................................................................... 16 

2.3.3 King’s Cross, London, United Kingdome………………….. ............................... 18 

2.4 Studies in Developing Countries…………….. ....................................................... 21 

2.4.1 Qatar National Museum's (QNM) Transit Village……………… ........................ 21 

2.4.2 Abu-Dhabi, Master Transportation Plan 2030………………… ........................... 23 

2.4.3 Dhaka City, Bangladesh…………………. ........................................................... 27 

2.4.4 Challenges for TOD in Developing Countries……………….. ............................ 28 

2.5 Summary………………… ...................................................................................... 30 

Chapter Three: Data Collection and Case Studies Assessment ...................................... 32 

3.1 Chapter Overview………………… ........................................................................ 32 

3.2 Data Collection…………………… ........................................................................ 32 

3.3 Analysis Methodology………………….. ............................................................... 33 

3.4 Case Studies Assessment………………… ............................................................. 40 

3.5 Analysis Results…………………........................................................................... 51 

3.5.1 Rawabi City Analysis Results……………………. ............................................... 52 

3.5.2 Recommendations and Guidelines for Rawabi City Based on Analysis………… 55 

3.5.3 Al-Raihan Suburb Analysis Results…………….. ................................................ 56 

3.5.4 Recommendations and Guidelines for Al-Raihan Suburb Based on Analysis ...... 58 

3.5.5 Proposed Strategic Planning Framework…………….. ......................................... 59 

Chapter Four: Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................ 67 

4.1 Introduction…………….. ........................................................................................ 67 

4.2 Conclusions………………...................................................................................... 68 

4.3 Proposed Policy and Regulatory Framework and Recommendations……………. 68 

4.3.1 Proposed Policy and Regulatory Framework………………….. .......................... 68 

4.3.2 Recommendations………………… ...................................................................... 70 

4.4 Limitations………………. ...................................................................................... 71 

List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... 72 

References ....................................................................................................................... 73 

Appendices ...................................................................................................................... 76 

 ب ............................................................................................................................... الملخص 



VIII 

 

List of Tables 

Table 2.1: TOD Principles extracted from literature review .................................................. 31 

Table 3.1: Objectives, metrics and points for walk principle ................................................. 34 

Table 3.2: The Evaluation of Principle 1 (Walk) .................................................................. 41 

Table 3.3: The Evaluation of Principle 2 (Cycle) ................................................................. 42 

Table 3.4: The Evaluation of Principle 3 (Connect) .............................................................. 44 

Table 3.5: The Evaluation of Principle 4 (Transit)................................................................ 45 

Table 3.6: The Evaluation of Principle 5 (Mix) .................................................................... 47 

Table 3.7: The Evaluation of Principle 6 (Densify) .............................................................. 48 

Table 3.9: The Evaluation of Principle 8 (Shift) ................................................................... 51 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



IX 

List of Figures 
Figure 1.1: Methodology of Study ........................................................................................ 6 

Figure 2.1: Place Type Topologies and land use mix in Phoenix ........................................... 17 

Figure 2.2: The Application of Place Type Topologies in Phoenix ........................................ 17 

Figure 2.3: The General Context of QNM Transit Village .................................................... 22 

Figure 2.4: The Strategic Framework of Abu Dhabi ............................................................. 25 

Figure 3.1: Walkways Metrics for Al-Raihan Suburb ........................................................... 40 

Figure 3.2: Cycling Network for Al-Raihan Suburb ............................................................. 42 

Figure 3.3: Prioritized Connectivity in Rawabi City ............................................................. 44 

Figure 3.4: Complementary Uses in Al-Raihan Suburb ........................................................ 46 

Figure 3.5: Urban Site Metric in Al-Raihan Suburb ............................................................. 50 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



X 

List of Appendices 

Appendix A: Tables Related to TOD Standards & Metrics Evaluation .................................. 76 

Table A1: Standard Values for Metric 1.1 Walkways Evaluation ..................................... 76 

Table A2; Standard Values for Metric 1.2 Crosswalks Evaluation .................................... 76 

Table A3: Standard Values for Metric 1.3 Visually Active Frontage Evaluation ................ 76 

Table A4: Standard Values for Metric 1.4 Physically Permeable Frontage Evaluation ....... 77 

Table A5: Standard Values for Metric 1.5 Shade and Shelter Evaluation .......................... 77 

Table A6: Standard Values for Metric 2.1 Cycle Network Evaluation............................... 77 

Table A7: Standard Values for Metric 2.2 Cycle Parking at Transit Stations Evaluation .... 77 

Table A8: Standard Values for Metric 2.3 Cycle Parking at Buildings Evaluation ............. 78 

Table A9: Standard Values for Metric 2.4 Cycle Access in Buildings Evaluation .............. 78 

Table A10: Standard Values for Metric 3.1 Small Blocks Evaluation ............................... 78 

Table A11: Standard Values for Metric 3.2 Prioritized Connectivity Evaluation ................ 78 

Table A12: Standard Values for Metric 4.1 Walk Distance to Transit Evaluation .............. 79 

Table A13: Standard Values for Metric 5.1 Complementary Uses Evaluation ................... 79 

Table A14: Standard Values for Metric 5.2 Accessibility to Food Evaluation .................... 79 

Table A15: Standard Values for Metric 5.3 Affordable Housing Evaluation...................... 80 

Table A16: Standard Values Metric 6.1 Land Use Density Evaluation .............................. 80 

Table A17: Standard Values Metric 7.1 Urban Site Evaluation ........................................ 81 

Table A18: Standard Values Metric 7.2 Transit Options Evaluation ................................. 81 

Table A19: Standard Values Metric 8.1 Off-Street Parking Evaluation ............................. 81 

Table A20: Standard Values Metric 8.2 Driveway Density Evaluation ............................. 82 

Table A21: Standard Values Metric 8.3 Roadway Area Evaluation .................................. 82 

Table A22: Objectives, metrics and points for cycle principle .......................................... 82 

Table A23: Objectives, metrics and points for connect principle ...................................... 83 

Table A24: Objectives, metrics and points for transit principle ......................................... 83 

Table A25: Objectives, metrics and points for mix principle ............................................ 84 

Table A26: Objectives, metrics and points for densify principle ....................................... 84 

Table A27: Objectives, metrics and points for compact principle ..................................... 85 

Table A28: Objectives, metrics and points for shift principle ........................................... 85 

Appendix B: Figures Related to TOD Metrics Analysis ....................................................... 86 

Figure B1: Walkways Metrics for Rawabi City ............................................................... 86 

Figure B2: Cycling Network for Rawabi City ................................................................. 86 

Figure B3: Buildings that provide secure Cycle Parking in Al-Raihan Suburb ................... 87 

Figure B4: Buildings that provide secure Cycle Parking in Rawabi City ........................... 87 

Figure B5: Prioritized Connectivity in Al-Raihan Suburb ................................................ 88 



XI 

Figure B6: Complementary Uses in Rawabi City (Planned City) ...................................... 88 

Figure B7: Complementary Uses in Rawabi City (Within Existing City Boundaries) ......... 89 

Figure B8: Urban Site Metric in Rawabi City (Planned City) ........................................... 89 

Figure B9: Urban Site Metric in Rawabi City (Existing City Boundaries) ......................... 90 

Appendix C: TOD strategic planning framework – Summarized ........................................... 91 

Figure C1: TOD strategic planning framework – Goal A ................................................. 91 

Figure C2: TOD strategic planning framework – Goal B ................................................. 91 

Figure C3: TOD strategic planning framework – Goal C ................................................. 92 

Figure C4: TOD strategic planning framework – Goal D ................................................. 92 

Figure C5: TOD strategic planning framework – Goal E ................................................. 93 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



XII 

SUSTAINABLE URBAN MOBILITY - TRANSIT ORIENTED 

DEVELOPMENT (TOD) PERSPECTIVE: 

A PILOT PLANNING APPROACH FOR PALESTINIAN CITIES 

By 

Shifaa Wael Mohammad Mashaqi 

Supervisor 

Prof. Sameer Abu-Eisheh 

Abstract 

Background: Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has emerged as a new approach in 

urban development in recent decades. TOD is characterized by a relatively high-density 

urban design with proper transit services featuring diverse land uses, complemented by a 

pedestrian and cyclist-friendly urban environment. Gaining knowledge and learning 

about good practices related to integrated urban development through urban mobility can 

be beneficial to reflect on concepts, plans, and policies in order to build livable and 

resilient Palestinian cities. 

Aims: The primary objective of the study was to assess the extent to which sustainable 

mobility is acknowledged in local urban plans within Palestinian case studies. The study 

aimed to identify sustainable mobility and integrated development strategies applicable 

at the local level as related to TOD. Consequently, the study provides recommended TOD 

policies and strategies. 

Methodology: A sequential research methodology was followed to study TOD as a 

sustainable mobility approach in Palestine. The process began with conducting literature 

review and examining regional and international experiences in the field. This culminated 

in extracting TOD principles and measurement indicators. The second phase involved the 

selection of the study area by choosing two exemplary cases that reflect the urban 

development reality in Palestine. Subsequently, data necessary for analyzing the current 

situation were collected from reliable sources and processed to conduct analysis for each 

study area. Upon accomplishing this phase, results were presented, including 

development of a general strategic framework to establish TOD as a planning approach 

in existing and emerging Palestinian cities. This was followed by conclusions and 

recommendations, serving as guidelines for authorities and relevant entities.  



XIII 

Main results: The results show Rawabi City satisfies a majority of the objectives of best 

practice in transit-oriented urban development where it has achieved a score of 59%, 

categorizing it as bronze-standard according to the TOD standards. Therefore, there is a 

potential to enhance the TOD system at the local level by making some amendments to 

the city’s policies and strategies, which in turn are reflected in its urban master plan. On 

the other hand, Al-Raihan Suburb cannot be considered to be satisfying the acceptable 

TOD standard scale, as it has achieved a score of 41%. Therefore, there is a gap between 

its planning concept and TOD principles, requiring re-consideration of planning aspects, 

according to the recommended guidelines, in order to align with TOD principles. The 

thesis results therefore include presenting a proposed strategic planning framework for 

planning new urban developments, or the transformation of existing ones, to be consistent 

with TOD principles including the vision, goals and objectives, and the strategies.    

Conclusions of the study: TOD incorporates diverse components to foster the creation 

of sustainable, dynamic, and efficient urban structure centered around public 

transportation and the reduction of reliance on motorized cars. However, the essential 

elements of TOD encompass close proximity to transit stations, mixed-use development, 

high density and compact design, pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, and affordable 

housing. Furthermore, TOD is in harmony with smart growth principles, emphasizing 

sustainable development, minimizing environmental impact, and encouraging efficient 

land utilization. The recommendations include encouraging the development of compact, 

mixed-use urban form, with emphasis on the planning and operation of public 

transportation systems with proper transit stations, and prioritizing such systems during 

the planning of urban communities to fulfill the fundamental principles of TOD. 

Keywords: Sustainable Mobility; Transit Oriented Development (TOD); Urban 

Transport; Integrated Urban Development; Strategic Planning, Palestine.    

 

 

 

 



 

 

1 

 

Chapter One 

Introduction  

1.1 Background 

In the urban space, people are looking for the diversity of activities that give them more 

opportunities, and consequently achieve personal and professional growth. Cities are 

multi-functional places that provide housing, work, study, leisure, health, and other 

activities. As a result, the availability of diverse opportunities shapes the dynamics of 

cities, which are affected by the social and physical elements of the cities.  

Through urbanization and urban sprawl, the industrial revolution created a paradigm shift, 

where rapid and widespread urbanization put pressure on cities to expand their urban 

infrastructure for longer distances. This consolidated individual motorized vehicle 

dependency, which led to several negative consequences, such as high economic, social, 

and environmental costs of traffic, exceeding road infrastructure capacity, and increasing 

the severity of accidents. The situation is more critical due to the growing urban 

population and the emerging climate change phenomena. Therefore, more sustainable 

means of transportation are required in order to adapt and mitigate the environmental 

impacts caused by the previous centuries [1]. 

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has emerged as a new approach in urban 

development in the early 1990s, through the concepts introduced by Peter Calthorpe [2]. 

It involves the planning and construction of mixed-use urban spaces with moderate to 

high population density, strategically located along a regional public transportation 

system. 

This approach has become an area of interest for researchers and stakeholders around the 

world. A number of researchers have defined this notion in a somewhat different way 

depending on his or her perspective, but the most common understanding is that TOD 

focuses on the development of all daily activities (residential, commercial, and 

entertainment) around existing and newly developed transit nodes. TOD is defined as a 

comparatively high-density urban development that has a variety of land uses and is 

supported by a walkable and bike-friendly urban fabric. This approach offers a variety of 

transportation modes (multi-modal transportation system) as an alternative to the use of 



 

 

2 

 

private automobiles. From this perspective, TOD is a sustainable development model 

focusing on the effective integration of land use and public transportation. TOD 

implementation results in a robust urban fabric that can resist the fast changes that are 

typical of living in the twenty-first century [3]. 

This research is, therefore, an attempt to gain knowledge and good practices related to 

integrated urban development through urban mobility, and therefore, to reflect on 

concepts, plans, and policies to build livable and resilient Palestinian cities. 

1.2 Problem Definition  

Palestinian cities are facing a pressing challenge in integrating sustainable mobility 

principles, particularly TOD, into their urban planning frameworks. This deficiency 

hampers the development of efficient transportation systems and cohesive urban 

strategies, resulting in increased reliance on private vehicles, traffic congestion, and 

fragmented urban sprawl. Despite the recognized benefits of TOD, such as reduced 

carbon emissions and improved urban connectivity, its effective implementation within 

local planning contexts is hindered by regulatory constraints and resource limitations. 

The research therefore focuses on evaluating the current recognition and integration of 

sustainable mobility principles, with a specific emphasis on TOD, within local urban 

plans in the Palestinian urban areas. By analyzing two case studies, Rawabi City and Al-

Raihan Suburb, the research identifies the challenges and opportunities for implementing 

TOD strategies at the local level. It seeks to propose tailored recommendations to enhance 

the adoption of TOD principles in urban planning processes, thereby creating more 

sustainable, inclusive, and vibrant urban environments in Palestine. 

The significance of addressing this gap in sustainable mobility integration cannot be 

overstated, as it is essential for leading towards more sustainable and equitable Palestinian 

cities. By promoting TOD principles and holistic urban planning approaches, the research 

endeavors to foster resilient, connected, and livable urban environments that prioritize the 

needs of residents and contribute to long-term socio-economic development. This 

research is poised to offer valuable insights and recommendations for policymakers, 

municipal authorities, and community stakeholders to support sustainable urban 

development in Palestine. 



 

 

3 

 

1.3  Significance of Study  

Many planning documents, such as master plans, sectoral plans, and strategic plans, have 

been developed in recent years for Palestinian urban areas. Furthermore, for these plans 

to be effective, they must have a strategic outlook and be capable of facilitating the 

implementation of the proposed policies with a holistic approach. This will assist in 

developing public policies in an integrated manner, where all sectors must be considered 

to promote integrated urban development rather than segregated sectoral public policies.  

There are substantial issues associated with the interrelation of many sectors and their 

positive and negative consequences, particularly in relation to urban mobility. As a result, 

there is a large gap between what cities around the world aspire to achieve (i.e., 

sustainable goals) and how planning documents are designed and implemented locally. 

As a result, this gap is a significant issue, as most urban mobility strategies persist in 

concentrating on transportation rather than taking a more integrative approach with other 

disciplines. Under these conditions, instead of transforming and developing the city, they 

address additional difficulties, threatening the city's sustainability.  

The following question is addressed based on the above stated reasons: To what extent is 

sustainable mobility recognized by the local urban and transportation plans for new or 

existing cities in Palestine? and how do the local planning approaches can be modified to 

achieve sustainable urban mobility?  

The issue of sustainable urban mobility has not been addressed before, neither through 

the general policies and strategies implemented locally, nor through comprehensive 

studies and research on urban planning and transportation in Palestine. Therefore, this 

research will be the first comprehensive study that clarifies the meaning and mechanisms 

of implementing sustainable mobility through the exploration of TOD elements. In 

addition, it identifies and applies general strategies and policies that are compatible with 

the existing local situation in Palestine, taking two Palestinian urban areas as a case study. 

 

 

 



 

 

4 

 

1.4 Objectives of Study  

The objectives of this research include the following:  

1. To deeply understand sustainable urban mobility, integrated urban development, and 

TOD through reviewing and analyzing previous related literature, and identifying 

documented successes, as well as failures, if any, in this field. 

2. To investigate and assess to what extent TOD is recognized in the local urban plans 

in Palestine considering selected case studies, and utilizing a comprehensive 

procedural framework integrating TOD principles. 

3. To suggest how to improve the satisfaction and adoption of TOD principles in the 

selected case studies.  

4. To provide recommended policies and strategies for sustainable urban mobility in 

general, but more focused on TOD at specific, as well as provide measurable 

indicators and parameters to evaluate the impacts of implementing these strategies.  

1.5 Study Area 

The study area is selected from the newly developed urban areas, taking into account the 

capability for conducting re-planning for the selected cases. Therefore, the case studies 

were Rawabi City and Al-Raihan Suburb. 

Rawabi City is located in the center of the West Bank, it is approximately 18 kilometers 

to the north from Ramallah and Al-Bireh cities. Rawabi is considered the first exemplary 

Palestinian city that was established by the private sector with a total investment volume 

of 1.2 billion US dollars. Rawabi City constructed from scratch according to a structural 

plan prepared by international experts, combining model design and sustainable 

development strategies. This makes the city a new model in the field of urban 

development in Palestine.  

The city was planned in multiple stages, and its expected population is projected to exceed 

40,000 people upon completion of all phases. Currently, the first phase has been 

completed, including 6,000 housing units distributed across 22 residential neighborhoods, 

with a capacity of approximately 25,000 inhabitants [4, 5]. 

Rawabi City, since it’s a newly constructed city that is not completely implemented. 

Therefore, this makes the re-planning and re-design relatively easier to transform the city 



 

 

5 

 

into a sustainable city through the exploitation of transit-oriented-development elements.  

Regarding the second case study, Al-Raihan Suburb was selected, and it is also located 

in the center of West Bank within the boundaries of the city of Ramallah. It is now 

considered one of the most important residential suburbs in the Ramallah and Al-Bireh 

Governorate. It was established by the Palestinian Investment Fund (PIF), and the 

opportunity for partnership with the private sector and local developers was made 

available during the construction and implementation phase. 

Al-Raihan Suburb comprises approximately 1,600 housing units, with a capacity of 8,000 

inhabitants and a total investment volume of 250 million US dollars. These efforts have 

led to the creation of an exemplary residential neighborhood for families and have 

attracted various vital investments related to providing integrated services at the highest 

level. Examples include the Arab Consultative Hospital, La Casa Mall, and the building 

for postgraduate studies branch affiliated with the Arab American University. These 

factors have made Al-Raihan Suburb outlines the expansion and urban development of 

the cities of Ramallah and Al-Bireh. 

This study will assess the local strategies and urban master plans of the two selected cases, 

considering TOD principles and providing recommendations to enhance the potential of 

having TOD principles in each of them based on the results of the conducted analysis. 

Additionally, a strategic framework will be formulated to adopt the TOD as a new 

planning approach in Palestinian cities. 

1.6 Methodology of Study 

A sequential research methodology was followed to study TOD in Palestine as shown in 

Figure 1.1. Details of the methodology are presented hereafter. 

1.6.1 Introduction 

The process began with preparing a comprehensive literature review and examining 

regional and international experiences in the field. This culminated in extracting TOD 

principles and measurement indicators. 

The second phase involved the selection of the study area, where various options were 

explored before choosing two exemplary cases that reflect the urban development reality 

in Palestine. Subsequently, data necessary for analyzing the current situation was 



 

 

6 

 

collected from reliable sources and processed to transition to the analysis and presentation 

phase for each study area. This phase concluded with the identification of the results and 

the issuance of recommendations, serving as guidelines for local authorities and relevant 

entities in each study area. Additionally, a general strategic framework was provided to 

establish TOD as a planning approach in emerging Palestinian cities. 

Figure 1.1  

Methodology of Study  

 

1.6.2 Literature Review 

Comprehensive research has been conducted through online sources to explore literature 

and scientific studies published in the field of TOD, in order to review various aspects of 

TOD, such as its principles, elements, positive and negative effects, and measurement 

indicators. Additionally, numerous previous experiences in this field have been examined 

in both developed and developing countries, in order to study the applicability of TOD, 

benefit from success stories, and avoid pitfalls during application. The literature review 

has also assisted in establishing a methodology for studying and analyzing the current 

situation of case studies, providing recommendations, and proposing suggestions for 

improvement. 



 

 

7 

 

1.6.3 Defining Study Area 

Two local case studies have been selected for the study: Rawabi City and Al-Raihan 

Suburb. These cases were chosen as local models that emulate the reality of urban 

development in Palestine, since it's limited to residential neighborhoods, large scale 

housing projects, suburbs and some new cities recently. Rawabi is considered the first 

Palestinian city since it is the first master planned city from scratch in Palestine, and Al-

Raihan is a suburb that has witnessed significant development and notable population 

growth. The evaluation methodology, based on TOD principles, was applied to both case 

studies, and appropriate recommendations were provided based on the analysis results. 

1.6.4 Data Collection 

The necessary data for analyzing the current situation of the case studies was collected 

through various sources, primarily through online research and data extraction, 

specifically from the website of the Ministry of Local Government's Geographic 

Information System (GeoMOLG) and the geographic information website of the 

Ramallah Municipality. In addition to the data available on these websites, additional 

information was obtained from the municipalities of Rawabi and Ramallah. 

The data collection process extended beyond the aforementioned methods, necessitating 

field visits to both sites and conducting on-site surveys to address any deficiencies in the 

data collected from online sources. Field observations were crucial in evaluating many 

measurements, as there are aspects that can only be assessed through direct observation 

on-site. The virtual touring feature on Google Maps was utilized to assess some 

measurements accurately.  

Furthermore, interviews and discussions were conducted with relevant stakeholders at 

both study sites, including municipalities, as well as planners and local residents. This 

approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of the context and enriched the study 

with insights from those directly involved in or affected by urban development in the 

areas under consideration. 

 

 

 



 

 

8 

 

1.6.5 Conducting Interviews 

This section presents the interviews conducted. One of these was conducted with the 

Ministry of Transportation (MOT) representative in order to obtain information related 

to transportation and commuting in the study areas, whether dedicated service lines for 

each area or lines designated for neighboring communities that also serve the study areas. 

This in addition to determine if there are licensed taxi offices and their numbers for each 

area. 

Another interview was conducted with Rawabi's city planner in order to understand the 

city's planning approaches and its strategic vision, as well as to identify planned services 

that have not been implemented yet. It also aimed to comprehend the stages of the city's 

execution and development. Additionally, it involved understanding the city's building 

codes and regulations, and reviewing the details of its provisions. Interviews were 

conducted with residents to explore details of their daily lives, assess their perceptions, 

evaluate the services provided to them, and understand the daily challenges they 

encounter. 

1.6.6 Analysis  

The analysis process was based on the Institute for Transportation and Development 

Policy  (ITDP) TOD standard scoring system that provides a quantitative method that 

distributes 100 points across 21 metrics, and the allocation of these points approximately 

reflects the level of impact of each metric in the creation of TOD that all indicated in 

Appendix A. The total score represents to what extent the land use plan and urban design 

support the use of transit, active transportation and to minimize car usage. 

The analysis methodology relied on evaluating the eight basic principles of TOD (Walk, 

Cycle, Connect, Transit, Mix, Densify, Compact, and Shift), which are outlined by ITDP 

in their research on sustainable communities and transport. Each of these principles was 

given a weight over 100 according to its importance to the TOD system except the transit 

principle it has no weight since it’s a fundamental requirement for TOD [6]. Next, several 

sub-metrics were developed for each principle, giving it partial points from the total 

weight of its main principle, provided that the sum of the sub-metrics is equal to the 

weight of the main principle to which they belong. All the main principles and their sub-

metrics were detailed and explained in Chapter Three. Additionally, spatial analysis using 

geographic information system (GIS) was prepared for the measures that can be spatially 

expressed in both study areas. 



 

 

9 

 

1.6.7 Recommendation 

After completing literature studies, data collection, and the analytical process, a set of 

recommendations has been presented to establish the TOD principles as a new planning 

approach in the planning of Palestinian cities. The recommendations of the study varied 

to encompass all planning levels. At the local level, specific recommendations and 

guidelines were provided for each study area based on its analysis results. Similarly, at 

the higher level, a proposal for a general strategic framework for TOD planning was put 

forward. As for the national level, the recommendations consisted of general policies and 

the regulatory framework. 

1.7 Thesis Structures 

This thesis is composed of four chapters, Chapter One includes the background, overview 

of TOD, significance of study, objectives of study, the research methodology, study area, 

and thesis structure. Chapter Two presents a literature review for publications and similar 

previous experiences in developed and developing countries related to TOD, including 

their urban plans, strategies and evaluating indicators. Chapter Three explores data 

collection and analysis of the collected data from different sources and the evaluation for 

each study area based on results. Finally, Chapter Four proposed a strategic framework 

and stated recommendations in order to enhance TOD as a pilot planning approach for 

Palestinian cities. 

  



 

 

10 

 

Chapter Two 

Literature Review 

2.1 Chapter Overview 

This section explores several fundamental subjects that serve as a solid basis for this 

master's thesis. Therefore, extensive study was carried out through scientific publications 

and official documents in order to understand what had been addressed concerning TOD. 

However, various research and planning efforts have been reviewed and presented in this 

chapter, which are categorized into theoretical background and case studies, whether for 

developed and developing countries, as illustrated hereafter. 

2.2 TOD Theoretical Background   

The genesis of TOD traces back to Harrison Feileik with the evolution of American urban 

centers [7]. Pre-1930s, urban mobility in the United States predominantly revolved around 

trams and buses. However, post-World War II, propelled by economic growth and the 

burgeoning automotive industry, private cars became ubiquitous among households, leading 

to a shift towards car-centric urban transportation. This transition precipitated a myriad of 

urbanization challenges including inefficient land utilization, rampant traffic congestion, 

substantial energy consumption, and alarming air pollution levels. In response, scholars 

began exploring novel urban development paradigms. Feileik introduced the TOD concept, 

advocating for the prioritization of public transit and the cultivation of pedestrian-friendly 

urban layouts centered around transit stops [7]. 

2.2.1 Concept of TOD 

Since the introduction of TOD, its concept and implications have seen considerable 

advancement and refinement, resulting in varied definitions across different stages. In 

summary, TOD embodies four main characteristics: leveraging bus stops as focal points 

for mixed-use and high-density land development; fostering a pedestrian and cyclist-

friendly environment; incorporating well-designed transit systems; and positioning bus 

stops as local area hubs [8,9,10,11]. Building upon these aspects, TOD can be defined as 

a form of land development centered around transit, featuring mixed and high-density 

land use along bus stops, and the establishment of pedestrian-friendly traffic systems. By 

concentrating residential, commercial, recreational, and public spaces within a circular 



 

 

11 

 

area surrounding bus stops, TOD aims to promote walking, cycling, and public transit 

usage while reducing reliance on private automobiles, thereby facilitating the integrated 

development of urban transportation and land use . 

2.2.2 The fundamental framework of a Transit-Oriented Development 

TOD community typically comprises several key land-based components. These include : 

• Public transportation station: Serving as the central node for transit connections, 

facilitating seamless movement between different modes of transportation. It serves 

as the central hub for a TOD community, akin to the heart of a neighborhood. It acts 

as the primary link connecting the community with the surrounding area, facilitating 

transportation and connectivity. The strategic allocation of land surrounding the bus 

station adheres to the principle of "the closer to the station, the higher intensity of 

development." This means that land use planning prioritizes denser development 

closer to the station, maximizing accessibility and encouraging transit-oriented living 

and commerce. 

•  Core commercial district: Concentrating retail establishments, dining options, and 

other commercial amenities to cater to the needs of residents and commuters. Every 

TOD community necessitates a central business district situated in proximity to the 

bus station. The scale of this district should be tailored to align with the community's 

size, geographical location, and intended function. This ensures that the business 

district effectively caters to the needs of residents and commuters while fostering 

economic activity and vitality within the TOD environment. 

• Office/employment area: Providing workspace for professionals and businesses, 

promoting employment opportunities within the community. To maintain a balanced 

distribution of residences and job opportunities, every TOD community should 

incorporate designated office and employment areas. This strategic allocation aims to 

mitigate the significant traffic congestion often induced by the separation of 

workplaces and residential areas, reducing the necessity for long-distance commuting. 

By integrating job opportunities within the TOD community, residents have 



 

 

12 

 

convenient access to employment options, promoting a more sustainable and 

harmonious urban environment. 

• TOD residential area: Featuring high-density housing options such as apartments and 

condominiums, designed to accommodate residents within close proximity to transit 

facilities. Generally speaking, the planning and construction of TOD community 

require a high residential density. On one hand, it can balance a large number of job 

opportunities; on the other hand, it can provide a stable source of travelers for public 

transit to ensure its efficiency. 

• Secondary area: Additional residential or mixed-use zones that complement the core 

TOD residential area, contributing to the diversity and vibrancy of the community . 

The secondary area of a TOD community typically refers to the peripheral zone 

characterized by low-density development. This area, adjacent to the core TOD 

community, primarily encompasses low-density residential zones, educational 

institutions such as schools, community parks, and public green spaces. These 

components contribute to the overall livability and functionality of the TOD 

environment, providing essential amenities and recreational areas for residents while 

maintaining a more relaxed, suburban ambiance compared to the higher-density core 

area. 

• Public open space: Parks, plazas, or green areas designed to enhance the livability 

and recreational opportunities within the TOD community. Within a TOD community, 

it's imperative to incorporate public open spaces that foster social interaction and 

community engagement. These spaces serve as gathering points for residents and 

visitors, promoting connectivity and a sense of belonging. Examples of such spaces 

include parks, squares, plazas, and community gardens. Additionally, public buildings 

like libraries, community centers, and cultural institutions further enrich the social 

fabric of the TOD community, providing venues for learning, recreation, and civic 

engagement. By integrating these elements, TOD communities cultivate vibrant and 

inclusive environments that enhance the overall quality of life for residents [12,13]  . 

 

 



 

 

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2.2.3 Planning Principle of TOD 

Since the inception of the TOD theory, scholars have been actively translating it from 

theory into practical urban planning strategies. introduced the following planning 

principles [8]: 

• Embrace a compact, organized urban model supported by a robust public 

transportation system at the regional planning level. 

• Arrange commercial, residential, work, and public facilities around bus stops within 

walkable distances . 

• Establish a walkable road network and pedestrian-friendly street spaces conducive to 

a positive pedestrian experience, ensuring convenient and direct connectivity between 

destinations. 

• Provide a range of residential options in terms of pricing and density to accommodate 

diverse needs. 

• Preserve ecologically sensitive areas, waterfronts, and high-quality open spaces to 

maintain environmental integrity. 

• Prioritize public spaces as hubs of human activity, emphasizing their utilization by 

buildings rather than parking lots . 

• Promote new construction and redevelopment around public transportation nodes 

within existing development areas . 

These principles serve as guiding frameworks for integrating TOD concepts into real-

world urban planning endeavors, aiming to create sustainable, accessible, and livable 

communities. 

Cervero & Kockelman introduced the "3D" principle for TOD planning, encompassing 

the "High-Density," "Diversity," and "Rational Design" principles. "High-Density" 

emphasizes the concentration of land development intensity around bus stations. 

"Diversity" advocates for mixed land use, encouraging people to live, work, and study 

within a concentrated area or along transit lines to alleviate urban traffic congestion. 

"Rational Design" calls for the logical integration of pedestrian, bicycle, bus, and motor 

vehicle traffic to minimize confusion and enhance efficiency [14]. 

In China, Zhao proposed a TOD planning methodology tailored to Chinese cities. This 

approach offers both qualitative and quantitative descriptions of key TOD aspects at the 



 

 

14 

 

macro, meso, and micro levels, providing a comprehensive framework for TOD 

implementation in the Chinese urban context [15]. 

2.3 Studies in Developed Countries  

2.3.1 Zurich, Switzerland 

Zurich, which typically scores highly across a range of indicators, including sustainability 

and smart cities, is highlighted. There are various strategies that the city has used to 

become more sustainable. In order to enhance the TOD, the city had focused on three 

main general policies, each has specific measures. The three main policies were: 

(I) Discouraging private motorized transportation; (II) Support public transportation; and 

(III) Support human-powered mobility [16]. 

Discouraging Private Motorized Transportation 

This policy is an attempt to transform travelling from private automobiles to public 

transportation using many measures such as:    

• Parking measures: Limit and reduce parking spaces, implement high parking fee, and 

limit the maximum parking time to two hours. 

• Speed and traffic calming policies: Implement 30 km/h on more than 50% of roads, 

and high density of speed cameras. Additionally, most residential streets have certain 

types of traffic-calming measures, such as chokers, on-street parking clusters with 2 to 

5 automobiles on each, alternately parked on the street side, or other road restrictions.  

Encouraging Public Transport 

The city has a population of 400,000, and the public transportation system moved over 

1,030,000 passengers every day in 2019. This is not surprising given the quality and 

reliability of the system, as well as the density of the network. However, trams and buses 

run rather frequently, with average headways between 5 and 8 minutes [16]. 

To keep the induced demand for vehicular mobility from vaporizing the improvements, 

the previously described mechanisms limiting and optimizing the car network are used. 

The city's public transportation system obtains the gains from these efficiency upgrades 

at the same time. The following set of actions is specifically undertaken to enhance public 

transportation: 



 

 

15 

 

• Transit signal priority: Full priority for public transport. 

• Bus and tram stops: There are few bus bays in Zurich; however, curbside bus stops 

are more typical. This ensures that buses have no trouble re-entering the traffic flow. 

However, it should also be mentioned that in Switzerland, motorists usually give way 

to buses. 

Encouraging Human-Powered Mobility 

As part of its commitment to encourage more environmentally friendly transportation, the 

city of Zurich has developed incentives for utilizing alternative modes of transportation 

as well, such as walking, bicycling, and other types of shared micro-mobility. The 

measures listed below to assist human-powered mobility: 

• Pedestrians: the focus has been on giving priority to and ensuring the safety of 

pedestrians, particularly in downtown Zurich through short cycles, green phase when 

public transport arrives at a traffic signal, and road crossing anywhere in 30 km/h 

zones. 

• Cyclists: speed reduction, comfort routes, and right turn on red. Two different types 

of routes -main and comfort- are included in a master plan from 2012. While the 

former competes with other forms of transportation for space by aiming to provide 

direct and quick connections, the other operates on less-used roads, such as 

residential streets. Additionally, many crossroads have been redesigned to include 

"bicycle boxes" in front of the signal whenever it is feasible providing for improved 

visibility of waiting cyclists and increasing priority over cars [17]. 

• Shared micro-mobility: Per vehicle fee, public dockless bike-sharing system. In 

2019, the city of Zurich implemented a new operating fee per vehicle, asserting that 

operators utilizing city space for economic activities should contribute financially. 

As an illustration, a free-floating shared bicycle operator is charged CHF 10  per 

bicycle per month, a deposit of CHF 50 per bicycle, and an annual flat fee of CHF 

1500 (EUR 1370). However, Zurich City offers "Publibike," a funded citywide 

bicycle-sharing program [18]. 

 

 



 

 

16 

 

2.3.2 Phoenix, USA 

The first step in the TOD planning process is the establishment of a citywide framework 

to improve the linkage between land use and transportation. Phoenix TOD policies 

concentrate redevelopment near high-capacity transit stops and shape walkable mixed-

use communities. The planning paradigm for this nodal configuration is referred to as 

"connected centers." A city's center is defined as a concentration of activities there. By 

integrating analyses of the transit system and urban form structure, eight mixed-use 

Center Place Types have been proposed. The Phoenix TOD Typology uses a hierarchical 

classification approach to specify generic growth parameters. The most intense category 

is defined as the Downtown Core Place Type, which gradually decreases to lower 

intensity Neighborhood Center Place Types [19]. 

Methods 

The features of current centers in Phoenix were examined to establish an initial list of 

TOD place categories. These categories were then refined and suggested for all current 

and future light rail stations, excluding those in downtown. City specialists evaluated 

various factors such as land use, zoning, demographics, and market studies within a 14-

mile radius of the stations to gauge the existing environment and its potential for future 

changes. The suggested TOD place category for each current or planned light rail station 

outside downtown Phoenix is illustrated in Figures 2.1 and 2.2. 

Implementation 

The "Five P's" were emphasized since TOD implementation is led by a performance-

based strategy. 

• Prioritization: To increase the effectiveness of resources in promoting the community's 

goal, implementation was given priority for certain types of expenditures in particular 

areas. 

• Partnerships: Investments were coordinated with partners in the community as well as 

within the government to get the most out of the limited resources available. 

 

 



 

 

17 

 

Figure 2.1  

Place Type Topologies and land use mix in Phoenix 

 
Source: Ref. (City of Phoenix, 2018) 

Figure 2.2 

The Application of Place Type Topologies in Phoenix 

 

Source: Ref. (City of Phoenix, 2018) 



 

 

18 

 

• Predictability: To ensure create communities of lasting value and safeguard investors 

from delayed approvals and incompatible development, zoning and other rules that 

follow district plans were in place. 

• Promotion: To engage and encourage potential investors, the community's vision and 

the existence of incentives was publicly shared. 

• Persistence: in order to achieve the vision, a coordinated coalition of stakeholders, 

including locals, companies, investors, governments, and non-profits, must continue 

to be actively involved over the long term. 

2.3.3 King’s Cross, London, United Kingdome 

King’s Cross, located in Central London, is a comprehensive urban regeneration project 

and a major transportation hub. With connections to six metro lines, two national train 

stations, and an international high-speed rail line, it stands as a central and well-connected 

hub in the city [20]. The project, identified in 1996 for strategic development, focused on 

mixed-use development, increased densities, and commercial activities around the 

station. The plan also emphasized urban regeneration, community support, and the 

preservation of historic features. Covering 27 hectares of former rail and industrial 

facilities, the regeneration involved restoring historic structures and constructing new 

buildings, creating an attractive environment with extensive public spaces. The 

development prioritized local connectivity, accessibility, and permeability, featuring a 

dense network of internal streets. King’s Cross includes open spaces, office space, 

residential units (with a significant portion being affordable housing), retail and leisure 

spaces, a hotel, and educational facilities.  

Major features of the King’s Cross include: 

1. Increasing Node Value 

King’s Cross Station, centrally located in London, serves as a major transportation hub 

with exceptional node value on a city, national, and European scale. Renowned for its 

connectivity and accessibility, the station links to five international airports within an 

hour, including three with direct connections. As the largest inner-city transit 

interchange in London, King’s Cross connects six metro lines and 17 bus routes. 

Alongside St Pancras and Euston stations, it is poised to be the primary transit center 

for London.  



 

 

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2. Increasing Place Value 

The unique planning over six years aimed to address the imbalance between high 

connectivity and low land use, emphasizing adaptive planning and collaboration 

between the developer and the government. The value of the place has been increased 

by Appling following several strategies: 

• Maintaining Flexible Master Plan 

Key physical elements were fixed for continuity and identity, while building heights 

were regulated for consistency. Design guidelines allowed for unity and diversity, 

enabling specific details to emerge over time. The planning approach viewed 

development as an ongoing process, promoting flexibility, negotiation, and 

experimentation with occupiers and activities [21].  

• Attracting High-Tech Firms 

Google, impressed by the high-caliber development, invested approximately £650 

million to acquire and develop a 1-hectare site under a long-term lease from King’s 

Cross Central Limited Partnership. Google's presence is anticipated to attract other 

technology companies, particularly small start-ups, and contribute to an increase in 

rental rates. 

• Blending High Density with Medium-Sized Structures 

Rather than relying on tall buildings, King's Cross achieves high density through the 

incorporation of 50 medium-sized buildings designed at a human scale. The 

development embraces a high-density, mixed-use, infill approach, featuring an 

average floor area ratio (FAR) of 4.6 at the block scale.  

• Reforming the Image of King’s Cross 

The King’s Cross Public Realm Strategy acknowledges the area's historical 

significance and integrates early Victorian buildings in a sophisticated manner rather 

than merely preserving them. The introduction of a pedestrian bridge and other links 

aims to enhance the positive contributions of the canal, improving accessibility, safety, 

and the overall character of King’s Cross [22].  

• Developing Public Spaces of Superior Quality 

The King's Cross development prioritizes the establishment of a vibrant and accessible 

public realm as a core element of its urban vision. With a commitment to open, 

democratic, and accessible spaces, 40% of the development is designated for open 

areas, including courtyards and gardens. The design interconnects various elements 



 

 

20 

 

like streets, parks, squares, pedestrian areas, canal promenades, cycle paths, and trails 

to support a diverse range of activities and encourage pedestrian movement [23]. The 

success of King's Cross lies in the collaboration of high-quality design and long-term 

management strategies. The result is a seamless flow of spaces, routes, and views, 

creating a dynamic and ever-changing environment that fosters vibrant interactions 

within the public realm, contributing to a thriving urban experience for pedestrians 

[21]. 

• Ensuring Unrestricted Use of the Public Spaces 

In King’s Cross, the distinction between public and private areas is achieved through 

built structures rather than physical barriers, utilizing features like rumble strips and 

distinct road surfaces where necessary to convey restricted access [23]. 

• Developing Active Streets 

The King’s Cross design focuses on creating dynamic streets by leasing ground-floor 

units to retail stores, bars, cafes, and restaurants, ensuring a lively neighborhood 

throughout the day. This approach extends beyond individual streets, establishing a 

network of safe pedestrian routes that connect key sites within King’s Cross Central 

and foster connections with the surrounding communities in Camden and Islington 

[20]. 

3. Increasing Market Potential Value 

Value capture has been made possible by embracing flexible utilization and 

maintaining a clear emphasis on enhancing market value, as evidenced in this section, 

drawing insights from Suzuki and others [24]. 

• Ensuring Flexible Uses to Enhance Market Adaptability 

The King's Cross redevelopment agreement permits flexibility in land uses, allowing 

the developer to adjust to market conditions. There is a 20 percent variation allowance 

within the total floor space, and limited trading of floor space allocated to one use 

against another is permitted. 

• Securing Funding and Cultivating Market Value Potential 

King’s Cross is financed through a combination of equity, debt, and recycled revenues, 

allowing for versatile project funding. The overall estimated value of the King’s Cross 

project is projected to be £3 billion, covering construction, professional fees, and 

interest [21]. 



 

 

21 

 

• Capturing Value  

The redevelopment of King’s Cross in England utilizes the Section 106 technique for 

land value capture. This involves negotiations between local authorities and 

developers to address the negative impact of development in exchange for planning 

permissions [24]. 

2.4 Studies in Developing Countries 

2.4.1 Qatar National Museum's (QNM) Transit Village 

This part is a quick review for Al-Harami & Raffaello study that explores the urban 

development of Qatar National Museum's (QNM) Transit Village, which is developed along 

Doha Metro's Gold Line, near to Doha Cornice, the Museum of Islamic Art and MIA Park. 

This village follows the approach of Green Urbanism and TOD design strategy to propose a 

master plan for the urban regeneration of QNM's transit village [25]. 

The ongoing construction of the new Doha-metro system in the State of Qatar provide a 

high potential to apply the urban regeneration of the major transit villages (TODs) along 

the metropolitan premises. The metro system has approximately 100 metro stations 

distributed along four main lines. The most relevant urban village is (QNM). 

The transit village has an area of 1.13 km2 and a radius of 600 m (0.38 mile), which is 

considered an ideal walking distance. The QNM Station will be linked to the stations of 

the Souq Waqif and Msheireb (the Heritage-Historic districts), providing a cultural 

connection in the ancient Doha City. Furthermore, the transit village is bounded by huge 

parks and is connected to the Museum of Islamic Art and the MIA Park [providing yet 

another linkage to a significant cultural zone]. As a result, the urban village may serve as 

a green zone connecting the MIA Park and the Doha Corniche, reflecting the other side 

of the corniche green area while preserving a historic-heritage character, as shown in 

Figure 2.3. 

 

 

 

 



 

 

22 

 

Figure 2.3  

The General Context of QNM Transit Village 

 
Source: Ref. (Al-Harami & Furlan, 2020) 

The proposed master plan  

The QNM-TOD masterplan was crafted with a strategy centered on establishing a vibrant 

transit hub that prioritizes access to essential amenities and communal spaces, fostering 

social interactions, and ultimately cultivating a vibrant, enriching urban atmosphere 

conducive to a high quality of life. Three key factors considered in conceptualizing the 

TOD include: (1) varied transportation options ensuring accessibility and connectivity; 

(2) a mix of diverse, densely arranged land uses; and (3) integration with natural 

surroundings (landscape, connection to public spaces, parks, and waterfront).  

To enrich the livability and quality of life for QNM-TOD users, the proposed master plan 

is grounded on the following key-elements: 

• Walkability and connectivity: 

• Establishing a public, open pedestrian network along the TOD with sitting areas with 

landscaping and shade; 

• Improve ground-level pedestrian accessibility; 

• Establishing a network of unimpeded cycling lanes; 

• Linking different urban settlement public and private transportation networks; 

• Establishing a network of pedestrian and bicycle lanes to connect and integrate mixed-

use zones; and 



 

 

23 

 

• Planning parking garages. 

• Land-use and diversity: 

• Increasing density and diversity by proposing various mixed-use development; 

• Giving priority to compact constructed forms; and 

• Creating a variety of open green spaces of different sized, including big parks for the 

public and private pocket gardens. 

• Public Realm: 

• Improving connections between main and minor roadways, as well as paved and/or 

planted open areas; and 

• Designing open areas with a range of viewpoints on or from the urban settlement. 

2.4.2 Abu-Dhabi, Master Transportation Plan 2030     

By the year 2008, Abu Dhabi Department of Transport had begun to develop the Surface 

Transport Master Plan 2030 for the city, which addresses the regional transport needs of 

the Emirate as a whole while particularly focusing on metropolitan Abu Dhabi to respond 

to the urban dynamics of Abu Dhabi. This plan proposed a comprehensive, large-scale, 

and sustainable transport system with a budget of multi-billion dirhams. However, it 

attempts to achieve a paradigm shift in transportation system in a record time that no 

state/city ever attempted to implement in such period. All decision makers believed that 

the master plan with its components would help Abu Dhabi become a sustainable, 

globally oriented, world-class city [26] 

The plan primarily aims to provide various mobility options for people, reduce traffic 

congestion to a minimum, and support Abu Dhabi’s vision for a sustainable, world-class 

transport system. Although the plan implied a huge infrastructure investment, including 

highways, freight rail, and regional rail, it also includes the providing of multi-modal 

public transport system supported by all required pedestrian amenities fully integrated 

with the land use system and the larger urban structure. 

The 2030 plan provides a general policy in different fields, including land use, urban 

transport, open public space, urban design and landscaping, housing in all categories, and 

economics. Briefly, it guides future development throughout the city. Since this plan is a 

step forward for sustainable development, it recognizes the three main actors in 



 

 

24 

 

sustainable development: the economy, the environment, and the society. The plan 

determined three main goals: an economic goal, an environmental goal, and a social and 

cultural goal. Furthermore, the economic goal is "promoting economic competitiveness 

and vitality through efficient, high-quality transport services for passengers and freight." 

Additionally, "delivering world-leading performance in environmental sustainability by 

using resources responsibly, minimizing pollution, and preserving Abu Dhabi’s unique 

environment" is the environmental goal, while its social goal is "protecting and enriching 

people’s lives by maximizing safety and access to opportunities for all." After setting the 

main goals, the plan follows the general methodology summarized in Figure 2.4 through 

identifying objectives and strategies to achieve each goal.  

The plan aims to improve the physical environment by acknowledging the crucial 

interplay between transportation and land use, fostering sustainable enhancements in both 

urban and natural environments, that’s thorough reducing traffic congestion, creating an 

attractive urban environment while protecting environmental resources and then 

sustainable low carbon future.  

Abu Dhabi’s Transport Master Plan aims to create a highly coordinated and integrated 

multimodal transport system. In other words, it is planning to have a set of well-connected 

transportation modes that work effectively in isolation. Each mode that is related to TOD 

could be briefly explained as follows: 

• High-speed regional train  

Very fast trains will be used on the high-speed regional rail network to deliver high-

quality intercity service that is competitive with air travel and as convenient as driving 

a vehicle. High-speed rail service will be connected to hubs that offer quick 

connections to the metro, tram, bus, and taxi services. To improve regional 

accessibility to and from Abu Dhabi, a high-speed regional rail network is proposed. 

 

 

 

 



 

 

25 

 

Figure 2.4  

The Strategic Framework of Abu Dhabi 

 
Source: Ref. (Abu Dhabi Department of Transport, 2009) 

 



 

 

26 

 

• Metro network  

A large and comprehensive metro train system is being built in order to offer 

competitive travel times for longer distance trips inside the metropolitan area. The 

metro network will have regular stops and two-way tracks for about 130 kilometers.  

• Tram network 

A substantial tram network will provide extensive transportation coverage for the high-

density growth zones. The majority of people will typically be able to reach a tram 

stop within a walking distance of 300 meters. 

• Bus service  

In areas where travel demands do not necessitate the capacity offered by trams or the 

metro, the bus system offers a suitable addition to the public transportation network. 

High-quality, air-conditioned buses will provide passengers with a calm, secure, and 

comfortable experience when using public transportation. 

• Ferry and water taxi service 

Passenger ferries and water taxis will serve both sides of Abu Dhabi Island as well as 

offshore business, residential, recreational, and tourism locations, completing the 

network of land-based transportation that is envisioned. The intended land-based 

transportation network will seamlessly incorporate these water-based services. The 

routes and schedules for the ferries will be predetermined, whereas the taxis will have 

local operating permits. 

• Pedestrian  and cyclists facilities  

Both the Abu Dhabi 2030 Plan and the Surface Transport Master Plan underscore the 

vision for the future, emphasizing the significance of creating an appealing and 

comfortable pedestrian space. Enhancements in pedestrian pathways are a priority, 

particularly in areas witnessing high pedestrian traffic or connecting transportation 

hubs. It is crucial to establish a secure and enjoyable walking environment across Abu 

Dhabi, spanning residential neighborhoods to densely populated urban centers. This is 

essential to promote the utilization of public transportation and reduce reliance on 

private car trips. 

 



 

 

27 

 

Pedestrian facilities should instill a sense of safety and security, ensuring that pedestrians 

feel shielded from surrounding traffic. An aesthetically pleasing setting will further 

promote walking by adding an engaging element to the journey between destinations. 

Considering Abu Dhabi's summer climate, it becomes imperative to provide protection 

from the heat and establish a reasonable level of comfort along pedestrian pathways. 

Elements like trees, screens, and covered arcades can provide pedestrians with shading 

and designated resting areas. 

The Surface Transport Master Plan advocates for the establishment of a network 

comprising safe and well-defined bicycle routes that link existing and emerging 

developments. Short-term bicycle rental services will be accessible in proximity to major 

transportation hubs and concentrated activity areas, including business and shopping 

centers. Additionally, there will be provisions for appealing and convenient bicycle 

parking and storage facilities, intended to promote cycling as a viable alternative to 

motorized transport. 

2.4.3 Dhaka City, Bangladesh 

Anwar Uddin and colleagues conducted an evaluation of Transit-Oriented Development 

(TOD) in Dhaka, Bangladesh, utilizing criteria such as density, diversity, destination 

accessibility, and design. They selected eight indicators to assess TOD, considering an 

800-meter buffer radius around each of the 17 transit stations for calculations [27]. 

Employing an objective-weighted spatial multi-criteria analysis, the authors evaluated the 

effectiveness of the framework. They assessed the model's robustness by analyzing the 

sensitivity of eight TOD scenarios and identifying hotspot clusters using statistical 

methods. Furthermore, the stations were ranked based on their TOD scores, and a 

comparison with TOD in developed and developing cities was conducted to derive 

planning insights. The authors proposed three distinct TOD planning methodologies for 

nodes, highlighting the importance of design, destination access, and density in 

redevelopment, zoning, and affordable housing policies across different regions of 

Dhaka. The study concludes by discussing limitations and outlining potential avenues for 

future research.  

 



 

 

28 

 

The examination of TOD index hotspots yielded insights into patterns and trends within 

the study area. Notable stations are identified as significant TOD hotspots due to their 

high potential for development. These locations exhibit characteristics such as dense 

population, mixed land use, and accessibility to public transportation. The hotspot map 

indicates a concentration of TOD along a main route, with specific areas showing greater 

potential for development. Factors contributing to TOD in these areas include existing 

urban infrastructure, proximity to key employment centers, and accessibility to public 

transportation. The analysis also predicts future TOD hotspots, based on mixed land use 

and high accessibility. 

The assessment of different approaches to enhance TOD in Dhaka stations offers 

significant insights for neighborhood-level planning and policy implications. The results 

indicate the importance of customizing TOD improvement strategies to the distinct 

characteristics and requirements of each station area. Elevating density and diversity 

emerge as pivotal for augmenting TOD scores in medium and low-ranked stations, 

underscoring the need to encourage mixed-use development and small enterprises. In 

contrast, for top-ranked stations, enhancing destination accessibility and station design 

holds paramount importance, necessitating improvements in connectivity with other 

modes of transportation and infrastructure enhancements. 

In summary, this study represents a significant step toward a more comprehensive 

framework for measuring TOD in developing cities like Dhaka, Bangladesh [27]. 

2.4.4 Challenges for TOD in Developing Countries 

Abdi & Lamíquiz-Daudén identified the most significant challenges for TOD in 

developing countries [28]. 

The study identified contextual challenges, organizing them into three key themes: 

challenges related to transportation, urban design, and sociocultural aspects. In the realm 

of transportation, concerns included insufficient regional and multimodal connections, 

poorly designed transit stations lacking essential facilities, inadequate selection of transit 

lines and stations with limited accessibility, a decline in the overall quality of public 

transport services, and weak connectivity. Urban design challenges encompassed issues 

such as inconsistent density, urban and residential environments favoring cars, an 



 

 

29 

 

unfriendly atmosphere for active transport and the handicapped, insufficient urban design 

practices, limited attention to the physical integration of transit stops with surrounding 

neighborhoods, and challenges in implementing mixed-use designs. Sociocultural 

challenges were characterized by a lack of consideration for understanding socio-cultural 

attitudes, social segregation and displacement, restricted social coverage that excluded 

high-income users due to crowded and unsafe public transport, and the influence of 

wealthier car users opposing public transport initiatives. 

Addressing policy and planning hurdles involved categorizing them into two main 

themes: policies and regulations, and planning instruments. Within the domain of policies 

and regulations, obstacles ranged from a proclivity towards car-centric and road-focused 

policymaking to the absence of incentives for stakeholders in Transit-Oriented 

Development (TOD). Other challenges encompassed issues with density planning and 

zoning geared towards TOD, the lack of design codes conducive to TOD, and skewed 

parking policies in transit-rich areas. Furthermore, there were inadequacies in supporting 

affordable transit options such as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), as well as a tendency to 

prioritize economic allure over technical feasibility or social impact. Neglect of 

affordable housing linked to public transit, scattered transit infrastructure, conflicting 

political objectives regarding urbanization, and insufficient consideration of regional 

factors in TOD planning were also notable challenges. Additionally, there were 

limitations in political support and susceptibility to political instability.  

In terms of planning instruments, challenges included a propensity for short-term 

problem-solving, inadequate planning capacity, imitation of western urban planning 

patterns, and the absence of a comprehensive approach covering various aspects of TOD. 

Political obstacles hindering policy innovation and insufficient systematic research into 

the appropriateness of TOD proposals were also notable challenges within this realm. 

implementation challenges include financial limitations, notably the exorbitant expenses 

associated with (rail) transit infrastructure, alongside sluggish demand within the local 

real estate sector and ineffective bidding procedures. Process-related and managerial 

obstacles also emerge, such as inadequate land supply management, instances of 

corruption, failure to highlight the benefits of TOD, scarcity of local expertise, subpar 

management of transit systems, insufficient funding for swift infrastructure expansion, 



 

 

30 

 

and bureaucratic red tape leading to inefficiencies and delays. Furthermore, hurdles in 

public participation and acceptance manifest through community resistance, lack of 

awareness due to inadequate educational initiatives, and insufficient community 

engagement characterized by top-down approaches lacking in accountability.  

The complexities surrounding actors in TOD include a divergence in disciplinary 

discourse between land use and transport planners, resulting in fragmented 

responsibilities. Decentralization has led to competition rather than collaboration among 

local governments, further compounded by the limited capacities of local authorities to 

plan, authorize, and execute TOD initiatives. Additionally, conflicting interests, 

individual pursuit of privilege, and opposing views regarding TOD add layers of 

challenge to the intricate dynamics that must be navigated for effective implementation 

and long-term urban sustainability [28].  

2.5 Summary 

After reviewing the literature and previous experiences of a number of countries, the basic 

principles of TOD approach and the strategies necessary to achieve it can be summarized 

as follows in Table 2.1.   

  



 

 

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Table 2.1  

TOD Principles extracted from literature review 

Strategies TOD Principle 

– Provide frequent, reliable, integrated and high-capacity transit 

system 

Transit 

– Establish dense and interconnected networks of streets and 

pathways. 

– Create enhanced infrastructure for waking and cycling 

– Minimize urban blocks sizes 

Connect 

– Design active pedestrian environments that promote activity 

through spacious and unobstructed sidewalks. 

Walk 

– Emphasize bicycle usage by establishing a network of clearly 

designated and physically separated bicycle lanes, alongside 

ensuring secure bicycle parking facilities. 

– Enhance cyclist safety by implementing speed reduction 

measures on cycling lanes. 

Cycle 

– Reduce the space designated for automobile traffic to 

discourage car usage. 

– Implement parking management strategies such as reducing the 

number of available parking spaces while enforcing high 

parking fees. 

Shift 

– Promote close proximity of residences to workplaces, schools, 

amenities, and other essential destinations to minimize daily 

commuting. 

Compact 

– Encourage diverse land utilization, integrating both residential 

and non-residential spaces, horizontally and vertically to 

minimize daily commuting. 

Mix 

– Encourage lively and transparent street facades to enhance 

pedestrian safety. 

– Stimulate vibrant streets and open spaces scene  

Walk & Mix 

– Boost population density in the vicinity of rapid and high-

capacity public transit hubs. 

Densify 

  



 

 

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Chapter Three 

Data Collection and Case Studies Assessment   

3.1 Chapter Overview 

This chapter presents the framework for TOD scoring assessment for the study areas 

based on quantitative data as well as accessible master plans and policies related to urban 

development or transportation. Evaluating each study area involves gathering diverse 

data, including some details particularly about block dimensions and urban frontages, as 

well as information pertaining to local policies and site features. This chapter outlines and 

applies a detailed, step-by-step process for scoring urban areas from TOD perspective. 

3.2 Data Collection   

The data collection stage is one of the most important stages of preparing this research, 

due to the importance and impact of the quality of that data on the credibility and realism 

of the analysis process. For this reason, more than one method has been used to collect 

the necessary data to evaluate the current situation, such as online research, site visits, 

and field surveys.  

• Internet research and online data platforms 

Conducting desktop research is the initial step in order to obtain compiled data such 

as plans, designs, maps, and reports to assess a broad range of metrics within the TOD 

Standard. The main data source was GeoMOLG and Ramallah Municipality official 

website. Various metrics can be scored through measurements and calculations, while 

others determined through straightforward counts. However, certain metrics were 

challenging to be evaluated solely based on document information, necessitating on-

site visits or interviews with individuals and organizations familiar with the study 

area.  

• Site visits and field surveys 

The on-site visits were conducted equipped with a copy of the TOD standard, a 

detailed map for the area, metrics sheet, and a camera. Comprehensive notes were 

taken, including actual distances and observational details, along with photos 

capturing the elements of the site undergoing assessment. Subsequent to the site 



 

 

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survey, the notes were reviewed and the points to be awarded to the site were 

determined based on the observations. 

• Other Data Sources 

Gathering information through reports and on-site observations did not supply all the 

necessary data for the scoring process. Therefore, there were information gaps, 

necessitating contact with stakeholders and related institutions such as municipalities, 

planners, as well as local residents for information that include details of fresh food 

sources and bicycles' amenities in the residential buildings. In some cases, the aerial 

photo was a tool for measuring distances, as several metrics involve point assignments 

based on distances and areas. Moreover, Google Street View for Rawabi City was used 

to collect data that enables measuring some metrics accurately.   

3.3 Analysis Methodology  

The analysis of the current situation for both study areas had been conducted using 

qualitative and quantitative measurement indicators that represent each TOD principle as 

specified by ITDP. This was done after allocating the weight for each principle across all 

its sub-measures, forming a total of one hundred points. In this section, the details of the 

analytical methodology presented in Chapter One are elaborated in greater detail. The 

distribution of weights on TOD principles are outlined, along with specific points for each 

sub-metrics corresponding to each principle. All of these details are explained in tables 

hereafter. All standard values for all metrics are presented in Appendix A.   

1. Walk principle 

Walking stands out as the most natural, cost-effective, health-promoting, and 

environmentally friendly mode of transportation for short distances, forming an 

integral part of the majority of transit journeys. It serves as a foundational element of 

sustainable transport, offering an enjoyable and productive means of mobility when 

paths and streets are well-populated, and essential services are conveniently located. 

Despite its benefits, walking involves physical effort and is greatly influenced by 

environmental conditions. Additionally, aspects like shortness and directness, integral 

to walkability, are further explored under Principle 3 (Connect). Three key 

performance objectives underpin the appeal of walking: safety, activity, and comfort. 



 

 

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All objectives, metrics and points for walk principle are explained in Table 3.1 

hereafter [6]. 

Table 3.1 

Objectives, metrics and points for walk principle 

Walk Principle 

Points Metrics Definition Metrics Objectives 

3 

Percentage of block frontage with 

safe, wheelchair-accessible 

walkways 

Walkways 
Objective A (The 

pedestrian realm is 

safe and complete) 
3 

Percentage of intersections with 

safe, wheelchair accessible 

crosswalks in all directions 

Crosswalks 

6 

Percentage of walkway segments 

with visual connection to interior 

building activity 

Visually Active 

Frontage Objective B (The 

pedestrian realm is 

active and vibrant) 
2 

Average number of shops and 

pedestrian building entrances per 

100 meters of block frontage 

Physically Permeable 

Frontage 

1 

Percentage of walkway segments 

that incorporate adequate shade or 

shelter element . 

Shade & shelter 

Objective C (The 

pedestrian realm is 

temperate and 

comfortable) 

15 Total 
 

To ensure safety, a variety of path and street configurations can be employed. The 

adequacy of walkways and road-crossing systems is assessed through Metrics 1.1 

(Walkways) and 1.2 (Crosswalks), measuring the availability and coverage of these 

infrastructures. 

However, the appeal of walking is highlighted when sidewalks are bustling, dynamic, and 

adorned with practical ground-floor activities and services, such as storefronts and 

restaurants. Proximity to passing pedestrians and cyclists not only captures attention but 

also infuses energy and vibrancy into local retail establishments. Metric 1.3 (Visually 

Active Frontage) assesses the potential for visual connections between sidewalks and the 

interior ground floors of neighboring buildings. This metric encompasses various 



 

 

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premises, including not only shops and restaurants but also workplaces and residences. 

Similarly, Metric 1.4 (Physically Permeable Frontage) gauges active physical 

connections along the block frontage, considering entrances and exits to and from 

storefronts, building lobbies, courtyard entrances, passageways, and other relevant 

elements. 

The inclination to walk can be notably improved by incorporating straightforward 

elements that enhance the walking environment, such as street trees. The provision of 

trees, considered the simplest and most efficient method of offering shade in most 

climates, is quantified through Metric 1.5 (Shade and Shelter). Trees not only provide 

shade but also bring about numerous environmental and psychological benefits. 

Additionally, various forms of shelter, including arcades and awnings, contribute to 

enhancing walkability. 

2. Cycle Principle 

Cycling is an emission-free, healthy, and cost-effective mode of transportation that is 

remarkably efficient, requiring minimal space and resources. Bicycles and other 

people-powered transport options, like pedicabs, activate streets and significantly 

expand the coverage area of transit stations. An essential requirement for TOD is the 

establishment of a secure cycling network that links all buildings and destinations via 

the most direct routes. This fundamental provision is measured by Metric 2.1 (Cycle 

Network). The cycling network can encompass different types of cycleways, such as 

dedicated cycle paths, lanes designated for cycling on roads, and streets designed to 

be cycle-friendly. 

The attractiveness of cycling as a travel option is contingent on the availability of cycle 

racks at destinations and the ability to securely store bicycles within private premises 

overnight or for extended periods. These considerations are addressed through specific 

metrics, namely Metric 2.2 (Cycle Parking at Transit Stations), Metric 2.3 (Cycle 

Parking at Buildings), and Metric 2.4 (Cycle Access in Buildings). All details of cycle 

Principle including objectives, metrics and points are explained in Table A22 in 

Appendix A.  

 



 

 

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3. Connect Principle 

Efficient and direct pedestrian and cycling routes necessitate a well-connected network 

of paths and streets surrounding small, permeable blocks. A straightforward indicator 

of path connectivity quality is the density of pedestrian intersections, heavily reliant 

on having small blocks. Metric 3.1 (Small Blocks) is a measure that recognizes and 

rewards a development with a small average block size. When coupled with the 

establishment of a comprehensive pedestrian network, this contributes to creating a 

dense mesh of pedestrian and cycling routes. Such a mesh provides a diverse range of 

route options for individuals to choose from when traveling to their destinations, 

enabling access to numerous activities along the way.  

Streets with frequent corners, narrower right-of-way's, slower vehicular speeds, and a 

high volume of pedestrians promote street activity and local commerce. An urban 

layout that prioritizes pedestrians and cyclists over cars by providing greater 

permeability further emphasizes non-motorized and transit modes, while robust 

pedestrian and cycling connectivity is a crucial aspect of TOD. Metric 3.2 (Prioritized 

Connectivity) directly compares these two categories and incentivizes higher ratios of 

non-motorized travel (NMT) path connectivity to car-accessible road connectivity. 

This metric encourages a focus on enhancing connectivity for non-motorized modes 

of travel over prioritizing road networks for motor vehicles. Table A23 in Appendix 

A illustrates the objectives, metrics and points for connect principle. 

4. Transit Principle 

Transit serves as a vital link, connecting and integrating distant parts of the city for 

pedestrians. To be acknowledged under the TOD Standard, access and proximity to 

high-capacity public transit services, specifically defined as BRT or rail transit, are 

essential prerequisites. High-capacity public transit assumes a critical role by 

facilitating highly efficient and equitable urban mobility, while also supporting the 

development of dense and compact urban patterns. Transit takes various forms to cater 

to the entire spectrum of urban transport needs, encompassing both low- and high-

capacity vehicles, taxis, bi-articulated buses, and trains.  

The TOD guidelines stipulate that the maximum recommended distance to the nearest 

high-capacity transit station is set at 1 kilometer, equivalent to a 15- to 20-minute walk. 



 

 

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Additionally, by constructing at higher densities in close proximity to the transit 

station, a development can optimize accessibility, ensuring a greater number of people 

and services can be easily reached within a short walking distance. Metric 4.1 (Walk 

Distance to Transit) mandates that developments must adhere to this requirement to be 

eligible for recognition. Table A24 in Appendix A shows the objective of the transit 

principle which is fundamental and have no points. 

5. Mix Principle 

Creating a harmonious blend of complementary uses and activities within a local area, 

including a mix of residences, workplaces, and local retail commerce, offers the 

potential to keep daily trips short and walkable. This diversity of uses, with activities 

peaking at different times, contributes to vibrant and secure local streets, encouraging 

walking and cycling. Such a mix fosters a lively and appealing human environment 

for residents. Metric 5.1 (Complementary Uses) acknowledges and rewards 

developments that integrate both residential and non-residential uses. Metric 5.2 

(Accessibility to fresh food) is not only essential for daily life but also contributes to 

an improved quality of life by enabling residents to walk to purchase produce and 

meals. 

Moreover, this diversity positively influences commuting patterns, ensuring a 

balanced flow and thereby improving the efficiency of the transit system. The 

inclusion of a variety of housing prices within a community enables some workers to 

live near their jobs, preventing the displacement of lower-income residents -who often 

rely on more affordable public transit- to outlying areas and potentially reducing their 

dependence on motor vehicles. Therefore, the two performance objectives for this 

principle's center around achieving a balanced mix of land uses and a diverse mix of 

resident income levels. Metric 5.3 (Affordable Housing) provides recognition and 

rewards for mixed-income developments that incorporate dedicated affordable 

housing. This metric emphasizes the importance of creating inclusive communities 

with housing options that cater to individuals across various income levels, promoting 

socio-economic diversity within the development. Table A25 in Appendix A explains 

objectives, metrics and points for mix principle. 

 



 

 

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6. Densify 

To accommodate urban growth in a compact and concentrated manner, cities must 

pursue vertical growth (densification) rather than spreading horizontally (sprawl). 

High urban densities, particularly when geared towards transit, contribute to a transit 

service characterized by high quality, frequency, and connectivity, while also 

generating resources for investing in system improvements and expansions. 

Transit-oriented density leads to well-populated streets, creating vibrant 

neighborhoods, and secure station areas that attract residents. Density establishes the 

customer base necessary to support a diverse range of services and amenities, fostering 

the prosperity of local commerce. The only constraints on densification should arise 

from hygiene and human health requirements such as natural lighting, ventilation and 

good fresh air circulation, parks and open spaces accessibility, preservation of natural 

systems, and protection of historic and cultural resources. 

The performance objective under this principle underscores the importance of both 

residential and non-residential density in supporting high-quality transit and local 

services. Metric 6.1 (Land Use Density) provides recognition and rewards for 

communities that achieve equal or higher densities compared to comparable projects. 

This metric encourages collaboration between the public and private sectors to 

enhance allowable residential and non-residential densities. The goal is to promote 

urban development that is both efficient and aligned with the specific characteristics 

of the surrounding environment. Table A26 in Appendix A illustrates all details of 

densify principle including objectives, metrics and point.   

7. Compact Principle 

The fundamental organizational concept behind concentrated urban development is 

compact development. In a compact city or district, different activities and facilities 

are strategically situated in close proximity, reducing the time and effort needed to 

access them and enhancing opportunities for interaction. Compact cities, due to shorter 

distances, necessitate less extensive and costly infrastructure (although higher 

planning and design standards are essential) and prioritize the densification and 

redevelopment of previously used land to preserve rural areas from further 

development. The Compact principle, when applied at a neighborhood level, fosters 



 

 

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spatial integration through well-connected walking and cycling paths, as well as an 

orientation toward transit stations. On a citywide scale, being compact involves spatial 

integration through public transit systems. The two key performance objectives for this 

principle revolve around the proximity of a development to existing urban activities 

and minimizing travel time to major destinations in both central and regional areas. 

two metrics score this principle which are Metric 7.1 (Urban Site) rewards 

development on sites within or at the immediate edge of an urbanized area. Also, this 

metric incentivizes development on sites situated either within an urbanized area or at 

its immediate periphery. Furthermore, Metric 7.2 (Transit Options) measures the 

availability and proximity of transit stations on different lines since they should be 

accessible within walking distance. All metrics of compact principle are detailed in 

Table A27 in Appendix A .  

8. Shift principle   

When urban centers follow the seven principles mentioned earlier, individual 

automobiles become largely unnecessary in everyday activities. Walking, biking, and 

the efficient use of high-capacity public transportation become easily accessible and 

convenient, supplemented by various intermediate transit options. This transition 

reduces the need for extensive road networks and parking areas, enabling the 

conversion of valuable urban spaces for more socially and economically beneficial 

purposes. The performance objective outlined below underscores these benefits. 

Insufficient allocation of off-street areas for parking motor vehicles is acknowledged 

positively through Metric 8.1 (Off-Street Parking). Metric 8.2 (Driveway Density) 

assesses the prevalence of driveways violating the protected status of walkways, and 

encourages minimizing disruptions to the pedestrian network. Metric 8.3 (Roadway 

Area) incentivizes diminishing the street space occupied by motor vehicles, 

encompassing both road areas and on-street parking. Table A28 in Appendix A 

illustrates all details of shift principle including objectives, metrics and point.  

 

 

 



 

 

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3.4 Case Studies Assessment 

In this sub-section, the results of the evaluation of the two local case studies (Rawabi City 

and Al-Raihan Suburb) are presented in light of TOD principles to determine the extent 

to which their spatial planning aligns with TOD principles. The goal was to identify the 

strengths to enhance and weaknesses to address an