An-Najah National University
Faculty of Graduate Studies

Translating Promotional Tourist
Websites: Balancing the Informative and

the Appellative Functions

By
Alaa Fayez Yousef Yamin

Supervised
Dr. Abdel Kareem Daragmeh

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for Master's degree in Applied Linguistics
and Translation, Faculty Of Graduate Studies, An-Najah
National University, Nablus-Palestine.

2015





III

Dedication

I dedicate this work to my amazing parents who supported me throughout

my life and to my brother Mohammad for his encouragement, love and

care.



IV

Acknowledgments

First, I wish to express my gratitude to Almighty God for giving me

the strength and patience to do this dissertation. My undying gratitude is

also due to Dr. Abdel Kareem Daragmeh whose careful guidance and

valuable help contributed to the completion of this work.

My thanks also extend to the examiners, Dr. Sufyan Abu Arrah and

Dr. Mohammad Thawabteh for their illuminating views. Their precious

comments and suggestions enrich this research paper.

My warmest thanks are to the Training and Development

Coordinator Karin Harvey and the Teaching Centre Business Manager

Steve Broadbent at the British Council for their effort and assistance.

I would also like to thank all my colleagues, friends and family for

their support and guidance.

To each one of the above, I extend my deepest appreciation.





VI

Table of Contents

PageSubject
IIIDedication
IVAcknowledgements
VDeclaration
VITable of Content

VIIITable of  Images
IXTable Of Abbreviations
XAbstract
1Chapter One: Introduction
21.1 Introduction
31.2 Purpose of the Study
41.3 Research Questions
51.4 Statement of the Research Problem
61.5 The Significance of the Research
61.6 Literature Review

161.7 Methodology
181.8 Thesis Structure
20Chapter Two: Promotional Aspect of Tourism-Related

Websites
212.1 Introduction
232.2 Website Effectiveness
242.3 Website Content
242.3.1Static Content
292.3.2 Dynamic Content
332.4 Website Content Quality
362.5 Website Design
372.5.1 Colour
472.5.2 Typography
512.5.3 Navigation
572.5.4 Photography
592.5.5 Videos
602.5.6 Electronic Maps
632.6 Conclusion
65Chapter Three: Translatability of Website Genre Norms
663.1 Introduction
683.2 Tourist Websites as a Cyber Genre
693.3 Variable Text-Types Within Genre
703.4 The Linguistic Features



VII

PageSubject
713.4.1 The Imperative Structure
753.4.2 Superlatives
763.4.3 Emphatic (euphoria language)
823.4.4 Abundant use of adjectives
843.4.5 Values Overlap
863.5 The Stylistic Devices
863.5.1 Simile, Metaphor and Epithet
913.5.2 Collocation and Cliché
963.5.3 Humour
983.5.4 Sound Effects
1003.6 Conclusion
102Chapter Four: Translating Culture in the Tourism-Related

Websites
1034.1 Introduction
1044.2 Translation as an Intercultural Communication
1064.3 Culture Specific Terms in Tourism Websites
1074.4 Translation Strategies
1074.4.1 Adaptation
1114.4.2 Equivalent Effect
1144.4.3 Faithful Translation
1154.4.4 Addition
1184.4.5 Omission
1194.5 Conclusion
121Chapter Five: Conclusion
1225.1 Conclusion
1255.2 Recommendations
126References
الملخصب



VIII

Table of Images
PageContentImage No.

26Informative Static ContentImage (1)
26Informative Static ContentImage (2)
27Informative Static Content with Appellative elementImage (3)
28Informative Static Content without Appellative

element
Image (4)

31360 Degree Panoramic Picture/ Dynamic ContentImage (5)
32Video Named 10000 Years of Culture and

Civilisation/Dynamic Content
Image (6)

32Video Named 10000 Years of Culture and
Civilisation/Dynamic Content

Image (7)

3324 Hour Malaysia TimelineImage (8)
39Red and White Colour SchemeImage (9)
39Red and White Colour SchemeImage (10)
40Red and White Colour SchemeImage (11)
41Red and White Colour SchemeImage (12)
42Cyprus LogotypeImage (13)
43Hong Kong's LogotypeImage (14)
44Blue in BanksImage (15)
44Blue in BanksImage (16)
45Red in Daily Life ActivitiesImage (17)
45Red in Daily Life ActivitiesImage (18)
46White and Blue/ Contrasting Colours in the logotypeImage (19)
46White and Blue/ Contrasting Colours in the logotypeImage (20)
48Serif/ San-Serif FontsImage (21)
49Serif FontImage (22)
50San- serif FontImage (23)
53Vertical and Horizontal Navigational BarsImage (24)
53Vertical and Horizontal Navigational BarsImage (25)
54Internal Navigation System/ AccommodationImage (26)
54Internal Navigation System/ AccommodationImage (27)
57Text-Photo CombinationImage (28)
58Text-Photo CombinationImage (29)
58Text-Photo CombinationImage (30)
59Text-Photo CombinationImage (31)
61Hotel- Electronic MapImage (32)
62Electronic Hotel Map Providing Accommodation

Options
Image (33)

62Electronic Hotel Map Providing Hotel Rating StarsImage (34)



IX

Table of Abbreviations

TermAbbreviation

Source LanguageSL

Target LanguageTL

Source TextST

Target TextTT

Customer Relationship ManagementCRM

Greenwich Mean TimeGMT

Systemic Functional ApproachSFA

Source CultureSC

Target CultureTC



X

Translating Promotional Tourist
Websites: Balancing the Informative and

the Appellative Functions
By

Alaa Fayez Yousef Yamin
Supervised

Dr. Abdel Kareem Daragmeh

Abstract

The present study examines new practices of translating tourist

websites. It studies the extent to which translation can optimise

communication between communities, extend the potentials of the web and

develop its promotional function. For data collection, the study depends on

six tourist websites, of which four websites are translated from English into

Arabic; whereas two of them are translated from Arabic into English. A

comparative corpus research between the translated texts will be

constructed, focusing on the linguistic and extra-linguistic elements in the

websites.

The research starts with the structural features of the tourist websites.

It studies their role in constructing an effective web communication, and

having given rise to a new cyber genre. Then, it proceeds to investigate the

linguistic features of the tourist websites, and how they were treated in

translation. Finally, the role of culture is researched in the translation of

these websites of global hospitality.

The study draws the conclusion that tourist websites have developed

into a genre per se. This genre has distinctive linguistic features that do not



XI

cause a high level of difficulty in translation. However, the translation of

these features becomes more challenging when a word's morphology and

syntactic structure within the genre is used for a specific function.

Moreover, the study investigated the stylistic devices repeatedly used in the

genre. It found that translating the humorous parts and the acoustic

elements are the most challenging texts to transfer from one language to

another.

The final chapter examines the concept that web translation requires

adequate knowledge of the cultural contexts of the source and target

languages. Utterances need to be accurately transferred from their source

context to target one. Accordingly, translation strategies resorted to are

expected to achieve the overall translation purpose and make available the

socio-cultural preferences of the target audience.



Chapter One

Introduction



2

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

The number of tourists travelling between countries is growing

steadily and rapidly. In many countries around the world, tourism has

become one of the main economic branches which contribute to the growth

in national income. Therefore, governments around the world are investing

more resources to promote their countries using various marketing options

like advertisements, brochures and websites. However, the success of this

industry is tacitly related to the proper design of publicity websites. A

marketing website is expected to decrease the distance between the tongues

and cultures involved, and to promote a good image of the countries

exchanging business.

This can be achieved by employing linguistic and extra-linguistic

elements to communicate the intended meanings from the SL website. A

typical tourist website has an interdisciplinary nature which, according to

Munday (2008: 14), "challenges the current conventional way of thinking

by promoting and responding to new links between different types of

knowledge and technologies". This promotional goal would be beyond

reach if the meanings and messages in the original texts were badly

communicated, or worse still not communicated at all to the intended

audience.



3

Though it is widely believed that a TT is rarely as effective as its

original copy, one should tip their hat to the translators whose work has

helped in providing appropriate equivalents for given texts. Tourism

websites are very much like other text-types where communicative intent is

considered the cornerstone to successful translation. These translations

"forge other communication channels, cutting across traditional disciplines

to reach all scholars working in the field, from whatever background"

(ibid.: 9).

Skibitska (2013: 736) lists the linguistic and extra-linguistic elements

that are to be catered for when translating tourist websites. These include,

Vocabulary, texts, hypertexts, and associated documents. It

[the translation] handles also the [ST] adaptation, dates,

distances, measures, currency conversion, content

modification, non-relevant data removal, explanatory notes,

or summary addition, [and] written style adjustment.

1.2 The Purpose of the Study

This thesis aims to discuss new practices of web translation. It sheds

light on the impact that extra-linguistic elements leave on a website. It

studies how textual content accompanied by extra-linguistic items

contained in the webpages form meanings, create more appeal and optimise

communication. The interrelationship between these items makes no

component more essential than the other.



4

The study also considers the linguistic features of the tourism genre

and aims to explain how they relate to the promotional function of the

texts. No matter what advances in technology have brought to websites,

good translation still holds sway of text meanings on all levels. The study

examines the lexical choices, syntactic structures and the repeatedly

encountered stylistic devices of the translated versions.

Finally, this thesis highlights the pre-eminence of cultural

competence in the source and target communities. To improve

understanding of other nations, adequate recognition of the cultural beliefs

and orientations of both the sender and receptor communities is of high

importance.

1.3 Research Questions

This research poses a number of significant questions for translation

research:

1- How do multi-media resources such as colours, images, videos,

hyperlinks, navigation bars and electronic maps steer the translation

process into new directions, and how much do they contribute to the

appeal of the translated texts as far as marketing performance is

concerned?

2- Do tourism-related websites configure a genre per se? What are the

linguistic features of this genre? And how are they treated in

translation?



5

3- How do translators deal with the cultural content of tourist texts?

How do they deal with the communicative intentions of the ST

which target a multi-cultural audience as far as functional

equivalents are concerned?

1.4 Statement of the Research Problem

Tourist websites have developed into a distinctive genre per se.

Therefore, translators who work in the field need to broaden their

knowledge beyond their professional scope, in order to take into account

multiple audiences from different backgrounds. The translation of tourism

websites is concerned with satisfying the personal and cultural expectations

of the prospective users. Though commonly accepted invariant textual

features will be preserved, it is expected that an adjusted recreation of the

original will seek to optimise communication. Linguistic and cultural

alterations should occur if necessary, adapting the cultural values of the SL

into the TL standards. Thus, literal translation takes away potential

promotional force. According to Beylard-Ozeroff et al (1995: 142) literal

translation is communicatively inadequate when cultural information is

implied in the source text rather than explicitly stated…to translate literally

or not is determined by the [translators'] understanding of the

communicative function of the element of culture to be translated in that

particular context.



6

1.5 The Significance of the Research

This current study aims to investigate translation of tourism-website

texts. As tourist texts have only recently formed a new cyber genre, few

books have been written to explore the translation of these texts. Thence,

the translation strategies that are followed to translate tourist texts resemble

those that are used to translate other promotional text-types. However,

tourist texts have developed their own linguistic features that have become

the inherited norms and conventions of the genre. Also, tourist texts include

cultural-specific content that needs special attention by translators. In short,

the significance of the research is derived from the fact that tourist texts are

loaded with three main functions: expressive, informative and vocative. A

translator's skill will have to mobilise to use these functions in the

reproduction of an intact translation, pursuant to the inclinations of the

intended audience.

1.6 Literature Review

The emergence of tourism-related websites evolved in parallel with

the inception of the World Wide Web. They have become a new field of

study for both web designers and translators.  In a way, tourist websites

have become the locus of a new cyber genre which, far currently, has

addressed a number of repeated themes. For instance, the value of ‘escape’

is communicated through romanticism and regression-related key words.

The value of 'delight', which is essentially, what tourists look for, is



7

communicated through happiness, hedonism and helio-centrism related key

words (Edwards & Curado, 2003: 1).

Equally prevalent in tourist texts are multisensory descriptions.

These involve the senses in an attempt to evoke a reader's indulgence in a

place's beauty. Cappelli (2008: 4-14), as well stresses on the fictive verbs

as a remarkable language feature in the tourist content. They give accurate

descriptions to the location or the motion of objects, the case that makes the

tourist web content more specialised.

One of the most important qualities tourist websites exhibit is the

formation of a genre, which consists of variable text types. Sanning (2010:

125), states that tourist texts mainly offer the expressive, the informative

and the vocative functions of language. The expressive function, on one

hand, unfolds the feelings of the text originator irrespective of any response

from viewers. In relation to tourist websites, text publishers and translators

utilise this linguistic function to show the emotional state or the subjective

attitude of the place promoters. On the other hand, the core of the

informative function is an external aspect. It relates to the facts of a topic

that is reality outside language. Website publishers use it essentially to

communicate information about the destination being promoted, and to

describe the world or reason about it. This is particularly obvious in the

descriptive texts of tourism websites. Finally is the vocative function; it

basically addresses the readership. The term vocative is used in a sense

‘calling upon’ readership to think, feel and react in the way intended by the



8

text. In fact, the vocative function is used to influence the readers'

behaviour, and stimulate them to pay a visit to the destination wanted. "The

vocative function is the goal, while the informative function is the premise"

(ibid.: 125).

Promotional tourist texts are expected to appeal to the consumers'

needs, desires, previous knowledge and experience through which they

perceive the world. It attempts to show the places' qualities that presumably

carry positive values for the consumers. Additionally, it offers the right

load and kind of information, taking the target audience into account. This

functional orientation of websites is basically achieved by the technical

tools inserted, as well as the semiotic system. The technical aspect has

some recognisable features such as colourful images, navigation systems,

hypertexts, videos and electronic maps that create a coherent and usable

whole within the website. Semiotics, on the other hand, studies the

structure and the functions of language which accompany the extra-

linguistic elements in the text.

When commenting on the linguistic features of the tourism genre,

Dann (1996: 2) highlights the textual properties of tourism websites:

Several verbal techniques typical of promotional tourism

discourse…are commonly found, such as an abundant use

of adjectives and of emphatic language (language

euphoria), the frequent use of the imperative mood and of



9

the formulae of direct address to the reader (ego-targeting),

common collocations meant to satisfy the personal and

cultural expectations of potential customers and to describe

an attraction by resorting to certain socio-linguistic

perspectives (e.g authenticity, stranger hood, et) and topics

(keywords).

As a linguistic feature in tourist websites, key words permeate tourist

web content. In a sense, key wording aims to use the correct terminology of

promotion. Daniela (2013: 12) refers to the key wording feature as "not

[indicative to] the real attributes of the destination. Rather, they correspond

to the requirements and expectations of the potential tourists". With this in

mind, this feature caters to special meaning to the readers. The words are

meant to stimulate ideas and fire the tourists' imagination. These key words

highly expectantly, have the nouns "adventure, escape, dream, imagination,

discovery, romance and excitement". With regards to adjectives, Maasalmi

(2013: 14) adds "free, romantic, secluded and dream-like," to mention but a

few.

Edwards and Curado (2003: 1) divided the repeatedly encountered

key words into thematic categories. The primary pairs of categories are

romanticism and regression, happiness, hedonism and helio-centrsim. It is

maintained that each one of these thematic categories "has its own

distinctive discourse features used in order to attract tourists towards the

destinations promoted" (ibid.:1).



10

Romanticism and regression both reproduce the value of escape.

Generally speaking, peoples' understanding of romanticism is rooted in a

binary opposition. Daniela (2013: 1) makes the idea more concrete by

saying that romanticism calls for pure air, unspoiled sceneries, a mood of

informality, abandonment, serenity and freedom. They all stand in contrast

to the dirt, noise, rush and pollution of every day city life. Hence, tourist

texts of this type are filled with historical stories of the past, myths time has

transmitted, flowery descriptions of natural landscapes and the exotic

elements of a destination, which can be romantically depicted.

Promotional tourist texts appeal to sensorial experiences. Pictorial

displays and visual settings are usually accompanied with an acoustic

landscape. The verbal descriptions serve to make the tourist content highly

emotive through appealing to the senses. The aesthesia value permeates

through texts and unleashes desire of travel. In a nutshell, the promotional

act depends on what Dann (2001: 45) calls "The Multi-Channel

Communication Network" theory. He explains it as,

Markers (signifiers) which communicate via media (text) to

appeal to the senses; the visual elements are catered for

through written messages, pictures and the structural outlay

of the website. The aural is emphasised by the sounds and

silence of the countryside; the gustatory via food; the tactile

by allusion to wind, water and human relations, and the



11

olfactory through reference to the fragrance of nature and

the nostalgic aroma of the spring waters.

Viewers always encounter descriptions like "Listen to the sounds of

cockerels greeting a new day, breathe in the crisp fresh air and look

forward to the simple pleasures of life, enjoy an icy cold dip in the nearby

river before trying your hand at fishing or baking delicious Malay cakes"

(Malaysia Tourism Website).

Closely related to the romanticism theme is the theme of regression

or retreat. Nature, the primeval mother, is the protagonist of this value. It

takes tourists one step further through relief and rebirth. Edwards and

Curado (2003: 12) view regression as escape from the status quo wherein

the whole sale of tourism is to rejuvenate one's self. Regression-related key

words web publishers repeatedly utilise are "retreat, escape, deep and

eternal".

Whereas the common denominator for the previous thematic domain

is escape, the next themes of happiness, hedonism and helio-centrism have

a common focus on delights and pleasure. Happiness embodies having fun

by escaping from daily obligations. Further, it implies immediate

gratification at a place and a total immersion in the moment. Daniela (2013:

5) describes the tourist 'happiness' as "the emergence of a narcissistic

tourist who seeks the freedom to abandon the conventions of home".

Hence, in this thematic category, tourist texts employ individualistic and



12

pleasure-centered expressions. Some repeatedly used expressions are relax,

enjoy, feel the comfort, hop in, turn in, turn out, marvel, indulge, sunbathe,

laid-back, indulgence and luxury, and they are all tourism-centered.

The next theme is hedonism. Selwyn (1993: 127-37) defines it as

"the chance to engage and overindulge in activity that may be possibly

sanctioned at home in terms of expected behavior". Hedonism is also the

state of mind about a destination. It is not about tangible offers, but

thoughts and abstract concepts about them. Morgan and Pritchard (2000:

10) believe that the tourism business is "all about illusion. It is about selling

people a dream and the creation of an atmosphere tourists would like to

realise. Potential tourists accordingly buy a holiday purely on the basis of

symbolic expectations established promotionally through words and so

forth".

The last category is helio-centrism. Simply put, helio-centrism

means the sun. Sun has always been connected with happiness, success,

victory and a good life. Sun has become an independent verbal cliché in the

tourist content, which cannot be ignored. Daniela (2013: 7) says that the

sun promises warmth, freedom; its beneficial rays guarantee pure

hedonism. Nonetheless, she adds that this kind of tourism centered on the

beach and sunshine is relatively recent. Nevertheless, "when it emerged, it

was an immediate success" (ibid.: 8). Tourist texts may contain several

suns, from the full morning sun, to the glorious sunset; meanwhile, the

reader imagines basking in all of them.



13

Generally speaking, these key words are believed to make the

features of promotion more pronounced. Gotti (2006), Nigro (2006) and

Cappelli (2006) seem to agree that some key words  are  recognised as a

"special discourse, displaying different levels of specialisation associated

with different types of texts that address a more or less specialised

audience" (cited in Cappelli, 2007: 7). Therefore, translators need to be

"familiar with the most relevant linguistic features of websites and

webpages, not only at the discursive and pragmatic level, but also at the

semantic, syntactic and morphological levels" (ibid.: 7).

Another linguistic feature the tourist web content enjoys is the use of

fictive verbs. Cappelli (2008: 8) describes fictive verbs, "there are no

elements that physically change place or actually move, but in order to

provide good spatial representations of specific objects, they are described

as moving or doing something". Movement only happens subjectively in

the interpretation of the readers. The idea follows from the hypothesis that

these verbs acquire importance from their frequency and function within

the texts.

Fictive verbs are divided into location and motion categories;

meanwhile, all of them contribute to the specialisation of the textual pattern

of the genre (ibid.: 4-14).

To start with, location verbs mostly use expressions to lexicalise

existential entities, by neutral linguistic representations. Neutral location



14

verbs include "situated, located, and placed". Other verbs contribute to

some additional information about the orientation (vertical axis for

example) of the object they refer to. These include the verbs "overlook,

crown and dominate". Other verbs lexicalise general inclusion of objects

such as "surrounds, encloses, and contains". Finally, some verbs lexicalise

the distribution of objects on the surface such as "to dot, to punctuate, and

to cover".

Motion verbs on the other hand, lexicalise movement on a surface or

through a surface or an enclosed space such as "to sweep, to spread and to

cross". Additionally, other verbs lexicalise motion in a circular or curved

path such as "to encircle, to curve and to wind". Finally, the majority of

these verbs lexicalise motion either on a horizontal or on vertical path such

as "to flow, to stretch, and to drop" (ibid.: 4-14).

The employment of key wording, multisensory descriptors and

fictive verbs are three linguistic features tourist websites share. However,

these linguistic features can also be encountered in unspecialised texts.

They are semantically accessible; in that, an ordinary person would

understand their content. This drives translators to underestimate the value

of specialised texts. These linguistic features are not challenging to

translate due to the available equivalent lexical units in English and Arabic.

However, they do become challenging if translators do not recognise them

as specialised linguistic features that derive their specialisation from

repeated functional use within a genre.



15

Cappelli (2007: 9-10) confirms the complexity generated in

translating tourist websites due to their specialised language which needs

professional knowledge in addition to translation experience. Language

holds sway of a text meaning on all levels, "at the morphological level, it is

common to find blending, acronyms, abbreviations and reductions. At the

syntactic level, relative clauses are avoided in favor of lighter constructions

and simplified passive relative clauses".

In order to assess the quality of tourist website translation, Cappelli

(2007: 3) depends on three frequently mentioned approaches. The mentalist

approach presupposes that meaning resides in the user's head; the response-

based approaches are behaviourist and functional in which the most

relevant criterion is the reaction of the reader to the stimulus; the discourse-

based approach calls for end text recontextualization.

This study depends on functionalist and discourse-based approaches.

According to the functionalist theory, the translator either preserves the

function of the text invariant or adapts the ST to the TC standards. Nord

(1997: 45) says that functionalism "does not mean that the waters of the

Main should generally be replaced by those of a Norwegian Fjord, nor that

cow's eyes should become deer's eyes…functionality simply means

translators should be aware of these aspects".

The aspects being handled above are the linguistic and extra-

linguistic features which are generally taken to be major components of



16

tourist websites. Linguistic features are represented by language use on all

levels, morphological, syntactic and semantic. Additionally, extra-

linguistic features are shown by the structural features of design. These

features and cultures manifest differently; therefore, a translator's role

becomes more significant in the production of functional translations. The

translation product is expected to fit the intended audience value system

and meet its expectations.

A productive website is supposed to be perceived as the native, non-

translated text by the target audience. Skibtiska (2013: 737) points to the

fact that when surfing a tourist website, users look for the easy and leave

the difficult behind; such user tendencies justify the general requirement of

simplicity and clarity in producing this kind of websites. Cappelli (2007:

11) reaches the conclusion that the equivalent web translation is the one

which meets the receivers' expectations and cultural context without

leaving behind the textual features. Thus, the translator exercises

significant decision making powers to render the core message optimal for

its intended audience.

1.7 Methodology

Since faithfulness seems to be of secondary importance compared

with effectiveness in this particular genre, this research relies on the

assumptions of functionalist theory. As a functionalist, Halliday (1985: 60)

states the goal of the functional theory as explaining linguistic structure by



17

reference to the notion that language plays a certain part in our lives. It is

required to serve certain universal types of demand; it approaches language

through text. In fact, functionalism theory is concerned with the contextual

assumptions of both the ST and TT readers. Its main aim is to produce

unambiguous texts that require the least effort possible from the reader.

Accordingly, any potential extra effort should be functional and any

awkwardness should be justified. When the text stimulus is properly

received, it will lead to the desired actions from website users.

To demonstrate the aforementioned theoretical points, data will be

collected from six governmentally-sponsored tourist websites. Two

websites appear to be translated from Arabic into English; these are from

Egypt and Abu Dhabi. The Switzerland, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Cyprus

Websites appear to be translated from English into Arabic. However, the

researcher is not familiar to the Swiss, Chinese, Malay and Cypriot

languages. Therefore, a probable case is that these websites were translated

into English as a relay language and then to Arabic. A relay language is an

internationally dominant language-English in this case. It acts as a medium

to translate other usually little spoken languages.

The researcher will construct a comparative corpus between the

English and Arabic versions. It will focus on the linguistic, extra-linguistic

items, norms and conventions of tourist language. Finally, it will examine

how the cultural content was treated in the target texts. The analysis will

focus on the lexical choices, the load and sort of information that the



18

English and Arabic websites present. Based on this collected data, the study

will define specific norms and conventions of the tourism genre in Arabic

and English. Moreover, it will point to the similarities and discrepancies

between the two languages, as far as websites' linguistic features are

concerned.

Data will be treated to show how the cultural elements come into

play in the translations. The study identifies and explains the strategies by

which the cultural content was rendered and dealt with.

1.8. Thesis Structure

This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one includes an

introduction to the thesis followed by a statement about the purpose of the

study. Then, the chapter progresses to present the posed questions the study

will attempt to answer. Also, the chapter raises the research problem and its

significance. A review of the related literature will be presented in this

chapter followed by the methodology used to collect study data. Finally the

chapter briefly presents the research structure.

Chapter two will focus on the promotional aspect of tourism-related

websites. It will examine the structural features of the genre. Plus, it studies

a websites effectiveness taking into account their content, content quality

and design as the three main criteria of effectiveness. Finally, it will study

six design elements and their role in giving rise to a new cyber genre.



19

Chapter three will focus on the linguistic features of the tourism

website genre. It identifies repeatedly used stylistic devices. It further goes

on to identify, define and classify translation strategies used to render them

effective. This chapter in particular will rely on the SFA, which views

language and social purposes in a reciprocal relationship. In other letters,

this approach studies meanings of texts through their linguistic structures

and studies how these structures lead to such social meanings.

Chapter four will focus on the translation of cultural content of

tourism websites. It studies translation strategies followed to interpret

culture-specific examples found in the STs. The translators of the STs vary

in their use of the translation strategies depending on the aim of the ST in

question.

Chapter five, being the final one gives the conclusions by way of

generalisation on translation behaviour in the targeted area of the research.

Plus, it presents two main recommendations from the researcher as well as

the list of references used in the study.



20

Chapter Two

Promotional Aspect of Tourism-Related Websites



21

Chapter Two

Promotional Aspect of Tourism-Related Websites

2.1 Introduction

Promotion is a frequently exchanged concept in the marketing

domain. It includes a wide range of activities aimed at generating sales for

the promoted product. In tourism, promotion does not differ from sales

promotion. Tourism promoters quintessentially plan to make social capital

and increase traffic to their destinations. They pursue differentiation

strategies that distinguish their identities in the marketplace (Knowles et al,

2001: 178). Being familiar with the fact that innovation sells and first

impressions count, tourism web-publishers have become more attentive to

the participatory media that make their relationship with potential

customers more interactive than it was in the print age.

Brobst (1995: 63) wrote that since the inception of the World Wide

Web, in 1995-1996 several methods have become specific to the

promotional function of tourism-related websites. Brady et al. (1997);

Steiner and Dufour (1998) named marketing websites as "Cybermarketing"

and defined it as "the set of actions, tools and techniques implemented by

an organization to promote the growth of its commercial activities using the

internet" (cited in Rachman & Buchanan, 1999: 12). Good and

Sambhanthan (2014: 3) give due attention to the interactive side of

promotion when they define Cybermarketing as "the process of initiating,



22

nurturing, and maintaining interactive communications with the market and

managing the Customer Relationship over time". In congruence with these

definitions, the effectiveness of tourism websites and the management of

long-term relationships with potential customers on the web have become

two focal features web-publishers are keen to offer in the websites and their

translated purviews.

These business-oriented definitions are matched by a language-

oriented one introduced by Nord (1997: 42). She defines the promotional

text-function as "directed at the receivers' sensitivity or disposition to act,

the appellative function is designed to induce [the end user] to respond in a

particular way". The strategies by which receivers' dispositions are steered

relate to the techniques adopted in the tourism cluster to create effective

websites. Whilst, consumer response is influenced by what is called the

CRM techniques (Augayo, Caro, Carrilo, Galvez, & Guevara (2001: 6)

which I shall address later on page 29.

This chapter sheds light on the structural features, which tourism

websites, as a genre, share. In addition, it focuses on the content and design

elements all websites are meant to have regardless of the website language.

The chapter also discusses the contribution of these elements to the

promotional function of websites in conjunction with other linguistic

features.



23

2.2 Website Effectiveness

Experiencing an increasing rise in tourist numbers, tourism websites

developed special conventions. These conventions concentrate on

functional use of language, and functional employment of design. A

complementary framework integrates these two criteria; otherwise, a

website would perform poorly. Tourism websites are viewed by Moreau,

Noel and Weiser (2008: 9) as selective transmission of data from

organisational scheme depending on a specific communication context.

Besides, for this communication to be successful, the interface of human-

computer should be targeted and made relevant to the end users' query.

A set of criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of tourism websites was

suggested by most researchers in the field. Chen and Sheldon (1997); Ho

(1997); Jung and Baker (1989); Martin (1997); Nielsen (1998) and

Rachman and Richins (1997) discuss websites’ content, content quality and

design as the measurement tools of a website's efficiency (cited in

Rachamn & Buchanan, 1999: 10). Moreover, Dong et al (2008: 1)

emphasise on the importance of the functionality attribute of tourism

websites in conjunction with their content and form. In a research paper,

they examined the effectiveness of different text-types and concluded that

"genres are normally characterised by the double content, form. However,

genres found on the web may be characterised by the triple content, form

and functionality" (ibid.: 1).



24

2.3 The Website Content

Although content is a key determinant of a website's effectiveness, it

received no intensive research until 1997 (ibid.: 2). As the word suggests,

content has much to do with the themes and topics of a website. It is

defined by Ibrahim, Shiratuddin and Wong (2013: 177) as one of the

persuasion techniques which communicates "messages and design features

that can be used to visualise the content". Furthermore, Rachman &

Buchanan, 1999: 14) divided tourism-websites' content in to either static or

dynamic content. Thereafter, other researchers followed this classification.

2.3.1 The Static Content

Static texts are observable structural and linguistic features of a

practically permanent nature. Their presence can be predicted by the net

users who got the impression of the inherited layout of tourism websites.

Static texts are thoroughly organised where only analogical subcategories

are grouped together and different categories do not mix. Aguayo et al.

(2001: 5) divided the static content into ten primary categories as far as

tourism websites are concerned. These are: location and access of

information, history, sights, museums, trips, nature, culture, gastronomy,

handcraft and general information. Rachman and Buchanan (1999: 16)

added transportation, accommodation, company and contact information,

searchable databases and booking facilities to the list. The static content

Klancnik says (2003: 53) "leads to a uniform product in tourism and the

disappearance of local standards". This uniformity highlights a site's most



25

significant features and content. It helps users understand not-too specific

details about the website in an unknown language by pressing on the button

that grants translated versions of the site.

The static content, Hill (2010: 5) maintains, is at the most basic level

known as an information portal which is used primarily for data

presentation. It draws together a range of data from a variety of sources and

present it to the user. This is not all; Hill divided static content into vertical

and horizontal types. The vertical content focuses on a specific subject area

or interest. By contrast, the horizontal content provides a range of services

to a given user. For exemplification, a website's home page will probably

support variable navigational elements about diverse aspects such as

destinations, accommodation, transport and interests. This is a horizontal

presentation of information; the numerous options unfolded when any one

of the abovementioned items is pressed on, are vertically presented. Here is

an example showing Switzerland's destinations as a static content onto the

webpage.



26

Image (1): Informative Static Content

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website

Image (2): Informative Static Content

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website

Destinations are basically informative; they provide content

information about the country's locations and regions. This is most

probably the reason that made the translation very faithful to the English

ST. However, this is not always the case. If we press on the services



27

element on the horizontal bar in the following image, a number of options

will collapse ending with the very promotional prepositional phrase "in

love with Switzerland". This sub-option includes declarations of love from

actual tourists. It answers one from among a set of questions posed to

tourists after they have done their journey like: "Do you also declare your

love?", "Which place you are particularly fond of?", and "Use our hash tag

to share your personal story on face book or twitter". This option was not

given in the translated purview of the homepage. Though it did not affect

the informative meaning of the text, it lessened its appeal.

Image (3): Informative Static Content with Appellative Element

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website



28

Image (4): Informative Static Content without Appellative Element

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website

Static content helps develop Customer Relationship Management

techniques as defined by Aguayo et al. (2001: 8). The CRM strategies

promise to gather client profiles on the web. First of all, all information is

stored and associated to one or more categories in the structural databases.

Then, it is stored in a text file known as the log file where information is

generated regarding access to each of the website's pages. Statistics are

extracted using information in the structural database afterwards.  In this

way, web publishers can decide the mostly visited pages in the web.

Consequently, web-publishers resort to the most suitable strategy to build

and translate their promotional websites. CRM techniques have turned into

a 'magic potion’ for having a linkage between publishers and potential

customers.



29

2.3.2 The Dynamic Content

Unlike static content, dynamic content enjoys a continually changing

nature. Santini (2005: 6-10) found out that dynamic content is a catch all

phrase for all new media resources. These resources mainly depend on the

burgeoning technology. Technology has influenced the textuality of web-

pages. Web pages have visual organisation that allows the inclusion of

several functions or texts with different communicative purposes. In other

words, space on the web is divided into the main body of the document,

navigational buttons, menus, ads, search boxes, hyperlinks, and interactive

and multi-functional elements sectioned in different areas on the web page

(ibid.: 6-7).

New media is the main component of dynamic content; they depend

on web support. The web is defined by Barfield (2004: 22) as the

"collection of text, graphic and multimedia information in a particular

format that is accessible using the internet". The web might be referred to

as the new media System. New media is either a collective term for many

types of interactive media that have been or are being developed. Primarily,

it includes multimedia and web design. The variety of the terminologies

applied to the same development reflects the constantly changing and

highly dynamic nature of the world web.

The concept of new media is drawn from the concept multimedia

which is a follow-on from the hyper-text development. The multimedia



30

concept is simplified and split by Barfield (2004: 7) into "multi meaning

more than one, and media meaning some distinct carrier of information".

He adds that more than one sense is used while taking information in

within an interactive system. A multimedia system is highly dynamic as it

changes with time: the images we see on the screen and the sounds we hear

change. The system either partially or radically may change in response to

user performance. Arguably, Interaction, in this context means "the user

can interact with the system and through that interaction influence the

behaviour of the system" (ibid.: 7).

Dynamic content with all its elements like colourful images, video

clips or electronic maps is supportive of the static content. In one sense, the

appellative and informative text functions are distributed between the static

and dynamic texts. The static content is mainly informative, and partially

appellative. By contrast, the dynamic content is mainly appellative and

partially informative. This assumption has been inferred from the fact that

most of the dynamic content elements were left untranslated, whether from

English into Arabic or vice versa. Consider this panoramic picture which is

taken from Switzerland Tourism Website,



31

Image (5): a 360-Degree Panoramic Picture/ Dynamic Content

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website

This 360° degree panoramic picture is published on the website

taken with specialised equipment that captures images with expanded view

fields. This dynamic picture provides viewers with the chance to see the

mountains from three different dimensions. When the left button of the

mouse is pressed, movement in that direction is shown. Viewers can use

the plus and minus signs at the bottom of the web page to zoom in or out.

That can also be done by pressing on destination names typed on the

picture. In the translated version of this web page, the picture was left in

English. Two reasons are expected for the choice, the first one is that the

translator did not consider the picture or other dynamic elements difficult to

understand. Thence, s/he resorted to leave the foreign elements on the

pages as part of its appeal.

The second reason depends on my assumption that translators

consider dynamic content supportive to the static content which they

already translated. Consider this video from Cyprus Tourism Website,



32

Image (6): A Video Named 10000 Years of Culture and Civilization/Dynamic
Content

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website

This video is cropped from the multimedia gallery in the Cyprus

Website. It gives a brief report about rural areas and nature in Cyprus in

English. The Arabic version translated only the titles of the video clips and

gave their size in megabits mimicking the original. The content of the video

remained in English.

Image (7): A Video Named 10000 Years of Culture and Civilization/Dynamic
Content

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website



33

2.4 Website Content Quality

Since the market is flooded with promotional websites, competition

is increasing substantially. To play in this landscape, tourism promoters

need to improve their performance. Prosperous websites perceive that

success is content-driven. Thus, content quality and web design have

become major components for commercial prosperity. Chen et al. (1997)

agree that the content-currency, accuracy and usefulness are three major

success factors of web promotion (cited in Rachman & Buchanan, 1999:

18). Content-currency capitalises on the significance of handling a constant

change in the web-content because customers are rarely expected to review

unchanging content. Tourist websites allow customers to reach the latest

updates, innovations, events, offers, contests and transaction processing.

Currency of web-content is not only inclusive of recent offerings,

but, abandoned and old elements are regularly jettisoned. Nielson (1998b)

argued that websites should have a "content gardener who would regularly

comb through all of the old content on the site. This person, would remove

outdated material, and update older content as needed" (cited in Rachman

& Buchanan, 1999: 18). For instance, Abu Dhabi Tourism Website

launched a banner in Ramadan 2014 telling "Capture the Spirit of

Ramadan" with its translation in Arabic " ناستلھم روح رمضا ". Those headings

were omitted after the holy month had departed.



34

The second criterion of content-quality is accuracy which is realised

by objective and plain language. Truly, subjective claims fall under

suspicion; whereas objective statements are doubly approved by customers.

Morkes and Nielson (1997) hereby invite web-publishers and translators to

use factual information presented without exaggeration, avoid overly hyped

language, and cut the subjective claims (cited in Rachman & Buchanan,

1999: 19). A web-publisher will probably be more convincing if s/he

explains why potential customers should pick his destination or use his

service.

The third criterion of web-quality is usefulness of the content.

Customers basically visit websites for the information and services that

cater to their needs. In their research, Rachman and Buchanan (1999: 19)

confirmed that net users "were very concerned whether the content was

something they liked and something they thought was useful, that was what

they kept commenting on more than the design, layout, or navigation".

Similarly, Moreau et al (2008: 9) accentuated that data even before any

web interface needs to be "grouped, ordered and prioritised. They not only

have to be given a form, but a function too. What should be displayed is not

all that is known, but only what can have procedural function in a specific

communication context". The following example from the Malaysia

Tourism Website is useful to illustrate this criterion.



35

Image (8): a 24 Hour Malaysia Timeline

Source: Malaysia Tourism Website

Here is a timeline the website utilises to show the time in Malaysia.

It divides the day into 24 hours and spots the current time with a small

round sign. The timeline starts on the left side and progresses to the right. It

is known that Malaysia lies in Asia where the time is ahead of the Middle

East. The translator kept the timeline as it was originally produced, rather

than deleting or re-directing it from the right to the left. This kind of

functional element presents translators with a source of difficulty. In this

particular example, translators cannot re-direct the line from the right to the

left, and spot the time on the other side. This is due to the international

GMT that makes time in the east ahead of the west. To move the timeline

would be to falsely change it, and it would become useless and

dysfunctional.



36

2.5 Website Design

Ambitious tourism-websites have always been inspirational about

enhancing their bottom line performance. Beuchert and Malek (2011: 6)

confirm design as a mission-critical factor to propel a brand to new heights

of promotion. To demonstrate, customers' impression of a brand's quality is

automatically connected with their first visual interaction with the screen.

The elements that influence this first impression include a variety of

options. These options are wide in scope, but this researcher restricted her

consideration to the aspects that have a point of contact with Interaction

Design in tourism websites. The most significant and contemporary

components of global hospitality websites are colour, typography,

navigation, photography, videos and dynamic mapping. Though these

elements are shared by most successful websites, there is no generic design

for all tourism sites. Unique identities are developed for each website

through moderate utilisation of the suggested options. Exaggerated

employment of these elements is no victory for the website unless they

stand for a specific communicative function. Hill (2010: 12) sums up a

research s/he conducted into web design, saying that "web portals are

designed with a core presentation ‘look and feel’. [They are] designed to

appeal to the majority of their users, and their functionality directed

towards those users' needs. Different portals may have different default

'look and feel' presentations".



37

Interaction Design has been identified in a special report from the

HSMAI Travel Internet Marketing by Beuchert and Malek (2011: 6) as

principally indispensable. They give reasons why Interaction Design is so

significant to tourism marketing. Design organises site content in a

hierarchical manner to give greatest emphasis to a site's most significant

content and features; moves between the navigational bars smoothly;

measures and distinguishes a brand's quality; captures consumers' attention

through elements of texts and beyond the text; reaches global travelers

through appropriate themes, cultures, features and content and; creates a

more positive and rewarding online experience for customers.

Despite of all these reasons to involve Interaction Design elements in

tourism websites genre, Jensen (1998: 185) warns that "it seems relatively

unclear just what interactivity means. Its frequency of their use seem, in a

way, to be reversely proportional to their precision and actual content of

meaning". Jensen herein refers to the functions attributed to each element

of the website's design and warns against littering them as extra media if

they prove to have no advantage to the website.

2.5.1 Colour

Deploying superior design is primarily dependent on colour. Colour

surrounds us in natural and manmade worlds. Some colours take their

meaning from early experiences; others are deeply-seated since time

immemorial. The true state of reaction to colour is probably a mixture of



38

the two. Colour has also been realised differently by varied cultures.

Nonetheless, the emergence of the new media means colours' sense has

been influenced by new contexts and novel functional purposes. In this

limited research, no exhaustive study of colour perception is intended, nor

will the study get overly involved in colour psychology. Rather, the

research presents basic guidelines for colour use from a promotional view

point and how it is dealt with in translation.

Beuchert and Malek (2011: 7) show the conclusions of a paper

presented at the American Society of Business and Behavioural Sciences. It

includes that colour grabs and retains attention; stimulates emotional

responses; affects individuals' perception; forms attitudes; reduces learning

curves and persuasiveness; exercises very strong affects and induces

reaction in individuals based on instincts and associations. Therefore, a

great significance is attributed to colour as it is a mechanism of meaning

transfer. In regard to tourist websites, colour influence is basically studied

in relation to logotypes, navigational elements and text and colour in the

site. To start with the logotype, unique identities for different destinations

are designed by and attributed to the countries promoting these

destinations. Bortoli and Maroto (2001: 4) concentrate on web advertising

and assume that "context for a banner is given by the website on which it is

hosted. A clash of colours or meanings between the website content and the

banner could annihilate the objectives sought by the advertiser". Namely,

tourism promoters effectively leverage colours to be acceptable to the



39

audience they host. For instance, the Switzerland Tourism Website uses a

red and white colour scheme throughout its logotype and navigational

elements. The homepage of the website features a horizontal decorative bar

wherein a variety of navigational elements are generated. Site navigation is

enhanced and visual order is created through the same colour scheme.

Image (9):Red and White Colour Scheme

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website

Image (10): Red and White Colour Scheme

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website



40

In terms of promotion, the red colour is "a deep saturated colour that

demands attention from the viewer and is often used on signs and lights

with functional messages" (Barfield, 2004: 132). However, the red colour

or any colour might be perceived to the opposite of promoters' intentions.

For instance, "to the average [British] person, red may symbolise danger"

(ibid.: 133). But, colours if combined especially in promotional websites

acquire distinct meanings from those which were associated with the colour

solely featuring. After five years searching design for new media, Barfield

(ibid.: 133) proves that "a particular colour on its own may have a

particular association, but when put in a certain shape, a different context

or combination, it may have a completely different significance".

A red and white combination is used in Abu Dhabi Tourism

Website's logotype. Both colours feature on the homepage and throughout

the   navigational elements within the website and its translated version.

Image (11): Red and White Colour Scheme

Source: Abu Dhabi Tourism Website



41

Image (12): Red and White Colour Scheme

Source: Abu Dhabi Tourism Website

Establishing logotypes with a colour scheme acceptable for two

countries of different origins (Switzerland and Abu Dhabi) brings to light

that colour combinations can change their associational meanings. "In-

depth knowledge of cultural colour associations is not vital, but it is

worthwhile testing colours against national perceptions to ensure that the

design is not making any big colour mistakes" (ibid.: 133). To demonstrate,

yellow which "is associated with cowardice in many western cultures

contrasts with the association of yellow with grace and nobility in Japan

and with prosperity in Egypt". These connections of colours are not taken

into account when other colour functions appear in media design such as

decoration. Yellow is a "positive colour. It is a bright, happy colour, the

colour of sunshine and smiley faces" (ibid.: 132). The following photo

features on Cyprus Tourism Website as its logotype. It uses two contrasting



42

colours, a dark blue colour on a light yellow background. The photo is left

untranslated in the TT, which is Arabic as a sort of exotic element standing

for appeal.

Image (13): Cyprus Logotype

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website

Bortolio and Marto (2001: 7-8) summarise a study results that were

conducted by American researchers in 1991. One of these results denotes to

the cheapness associated with orange. As well, it draws attention to the

calming, gentle and peaceful spectrum of meanings associated with the

blue-green-white colours cluster. Somehow, this justifies this colour

combination in The Hong Kong Tourism Website logotype. Web

publishers use colour combinations as a standardised strategy particularly

when colour meanings are similar across markets.



43

Image (14): Hong Kong's Logotype

Source: Hong Kong Tourism Website

Tourist sites render consumers' experiences and reinforce them by

colours. Colours are effective in creating emotional connections between a

site's viewers and the experiences being depicted. For instance, on Hong

Kong Tourism Website, the colour blue features in a section for

telecommunication and social network connections;  while, a section on

markets and daily life activities is rendered in red and orange; and nightlife

in light black. In a nutshell, colours are used for the specific images

combined with them. Blue is found to have a relationship with the values of

trust, security and wealth. The writers Bortolio and Maroto (2001: 8) for

this reason justify the utilisation of blue in banks, telecommunication

companies and social networks.



44

Image (15): Blue in Banks

Source: Hong Kong Tourism Website

Image (16): Blue in Banks

Source: Hong Kong Tourism Website



45

Image (17): Red in Daily Life Activities

Source: Hong Kong Tourism Website

Image (18): Red in Daily Life Activities

Source: Hong Kong Tourism Website

The last guideline to colour utilisation in promotional websites

recommends writing texts over backgrounds with highly contrasting

colours. Barfield (2004: 131) recommends that "in order to make text as

legible as possible the text should be discerned from the background by

means of difference in contrast: dark blue on a light background or vice

versa". Beuchert and Malek (2011: 10) explain that "low contrast between



46

the font and background makes reading a difficult prospect, and increases

the likelihood of site abandonment… the contrasting colours are

scientifically proven to be the easiest for the eye to read". To exemplify,

Egypt Tourism Website utilises blue letters on a white background and vice

versa to launch a special logotype for the website. The Translated Arabic

text maintains the same colour scheme leaving the inviting phrase

"experience the Colour of Egypt" in English as a cosmetic aspect.

Image (19): White and Blue/ Contrasting Colours in Egypt's Logotype

Source: Egypt Tourism Website

Image (20): White and Blue/ Contrasting Colours in Egypt's Logotype

Source: Egypt Tourism Website



47

To sum up, colour is the first design element that can be leveraged to

construct effective website communication. It enhances brand identities for

the countries that utilise them. More importantly, colours in the tourist

websites acquire associations of meanings that are different from those

assigned to them in other contexts. More specifically, colours on tourist

webs have developed specific meanings in the marketing domain, to the

extent that they do not cause any kind of challenge in translation.

Translators have now become confident about applying the same colour

scheme from the source website to the target one. This makes the task

easier for translators; since they do not have to look for new colour patterns

or combinations to translate the original ones.

2.5.2 Typography

Paramount significance has been assigned to colour factors. Of no

less importance are the typography and font elements. Earlier, in the

research, it has been implied that text is the king of contents in any

communicative document, be it printed or digital. Content is the

fundamental means of communication between readers and documents. It

is the item for which users surf the net or navigate a website. Therefore,

web publishers seek to deploy web pages with fonts appropriately utilised

in terms of type, size and colour to improve ease of surfing.

Beuchert and Malek (2011: 9) sum up the variety of reasons why

font is a key ingredient in websites design. Fonts are visual branding



48

elements that differentiate websites' content, create a sense of organisation,

make texts legible and improve the viewer experience. Font-types

constantly feature on tourism websites are divided into two primary

categories of serif and san-serif font styles. San-serif font type is distinct

from serif style by the elimination of the small projecting features at the

end of the letter edges. During years of experience, designers have

developed standard principles to employ these fonts appropriately through

texts.

The serif font is used in larger sizes to provide flair and invoke the

understated elegance of the brand. While, san-serif fonts, due to their

straightforwardness, are used for smaller sized copy, in order to make text

and additional hyperlinks on the page more legible and easily navigated

(ibid.: 10).

Image (21): Serif/ San-Serif Fonts

Source: Egypt Tourism Website



49

Halpern (2014: 19) has a compelling note concerning the serif font.

He says that serif font "creates horizontal flow on sentences. Some

designers believe this encourages people to continue reading and finish the

content". Serif and san-serif font types are not the only means through

which promoters achieve their goals. Appeal can be created by font size

regardless of its type. This becomes especially important when the TL

cannot produce the exact SL fonts. Hence, tourism websites catering for

international audiences, perceive that font size should be professionally

transferred into a similar font size of the TL. The following two photos

feature on Malaysia Tourism Website's homepage; they show how different

fonts in different languages cannot be the same type; though they can be of

similar size.

Image (22): Serif Font
Source: Malaysia Tourism Website



50

Image (23): San-serif Font

Source: Malaysia Tourism Website

It is taken for granted that sitting in front of a computer screen places

a strain on the eye. Therefore, web publishers use uniform font sizes and

colours to reduce strain. Identical sizes and colours are established for the

main-headers, sub-headers and body copy. The body copy should be

written in short sentences, and bullet points should be used whenever

possible. If consistently applied through the site, this font uniformity helps

assort information. As well, it forces the consumers towards the part they

look for more quickly and flexibly (Beuchert & Malek, 2011: 12).

Generally speaking, font types, sizes, and colours are employed to improve

the aesthetic aspects of tourist websites and increase their readability.

Halpern (2014: 16) considers typography the third website nonverbal

intelligent element. He recommends using a soothing typography that

meets the ingrained psychological expectations of the potential customers.

Further, he believes that the perfect font is the easy to read font. Thus, there

is a  justification for transferring the serif font in the first image with the



51

san-serif font in the second image. Thawabteh (2011: 35) says " as for

Arabic, legible fonts are characteristic of san-serifed typeface with

proportional distribution. On the other hand, illegible fonts may include

highly serifed fonts. Viewers are expected to exert much effort to recognise

letters, thereby losing sight of the spirit of the SL intended message". In

only one given situation a Fancy font works is in a difficult-to make

product description. The key takeaway of this, is that "if you're selling a

high-priced product, fancy fonts suggest more effort went into creating it.

Since the font is difficult to read, people assume it is difficult to make"

(ibid.: 20).

Generally speaking, the typographic fonts that best suit the tourist

websites are the easy to read. The English language owns two primary font

styles, the serif and san-serif, which the Arabic language does not similarly

produce. Therefore, in the translation process, translators resort to transfer

the font type or style from the SL to a similar font type in the TL. However,

if the font type is not available in the TL, the font can be transferred into a

suitable font size that functions as the original font did.

2.5.3 Navigation

Website navigation perhaps resembles the topology of a house. A

building would probably have an entrance, numerous rooms, and corridors.

Corridors are the transitions through which dwellers move into the house.

In a sense, this is analogous to a tourism website’s homepage, content



52

interior pages and the navigation buttons through which functional

navigation is guaranteed. As a rule of thumb, web navigation is more

complex than mere movement in a house. Interactive navigation within

websites needs plenty of design and hierarchal organisation. Otherwise,

visual clutter would engender search difficulty and site abandonment.

Web navigation is defined by Barfield (2004: 225) as the system

through which users get around in some sort of interactive structure,

information-structure. The navigational system of the web is designed for

two main purposes. The first is to seek information in an intuitive manner;

the second is to serve reach this information readily and flexibly. Websites

are expected to have at least three navigational elements upon entering the

site. These elements include a primary navigational bar, a drop-down menu

and extra text links.

The main navigational bars are explicit support for the navigational

system of the website. They are usually located at the most visible place on

the homepage. Navigation elements may combine two orientations of

vertical and horizontal structures within the same page. Navigation

elements work efficiently if the websites sections are labelled appropriately

and given the exact wording clearly and unambiguously. Viewers by then

access the information sources quickly and flexibly. Cyprus Tourism

Website enjoys such a structure.



53

Image (24): Vertical and Horizontal Navigational Bars

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website

Image (25): Vertical and Horizontal Navigational Bars

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website

The variety of options, whether horizontal or vertical, are sustained

by an internal navigational system. A piece of explanation plus other

activity lists are available if any of the options were pressed. Have a look at

the internal navigational system of the accommodation option on the

vertical list.



54

Image (26): Internal Navigation System/ Accommodation

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website

Image (27): Internal Navigation System/ Accommodation

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website



55

The accommodation option on the vertical list with its internal

navigational system are straightaway offered in the translated version of the

website. The Arabic version provides an adequate and acceptable

translation of the accommodation navigation bar, though it leaves some

items untranslated. These items are apparently highly technical; that the TL

still has not invented equivalent lexical words or concepts to match them.

These items are the ' WHACCP, ISO 14001:2004, Green Key, OHSAS ISO

18001, and ISO 9001: 2008'. Some technical abbreviations like 'Wi Fi'

above has found its transliteration in Arabic as 'واي فاي'.

Webpages are expected to be self-explanatory without lots of content

jammed in. Chances that viewers might become 'analysis- paralyzed' are

high if there are lots of inoperative content. Halpern (2014: 12) thinks that

when there is more than one goal per page, there is a risk of creating a

paralyzed mindset. Instead of surfing, viewers might leave without

performing any action.

The second content of the navigational system is the hyperlinks.

Hyperlinks are simply extra texts that expand from the original text during

the text production process. From a navigation perspective, hyperlinks are

avenues for access to the exponentially increasing amount of information

on the web. Including links inside the content makes it hard for searchers to

miss any informative input. These editorial links help pique curiosity and

gets users to click to more articles. This case builds further value and

authority to the webpage (ibid.: 11).



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Hyperlinks are navigational tools that stretch across the whole scale

of the websites details. Barfield (2004: 239) attributes two principal

functions to the extra-links. Firstly, they are connected with moving around

the information structure and the second concerns performing certain

actions, such as staying on a page or clicking on a button. Even though,

maximised usability and easy maneuver into the site's section are never

recommended by too multiple links. Littering a web page with too many

links confuses the viewers and disturbs the consistent information flow

(ibid.: 239). Crowston and Williams (1999: 2) considered hypertexts as a

technique to present a single narrative rather than allowing users to move at

random. Furthermore, these texts reflect the structure of the document,

divided into chapters, sections and subsection.

To conclude, websites generally support navigation functionality via

navigational bars and hypertexts. Both enable website searchers to get the

information they need, or personalise their exploration pursuant to their

own needs and inclinations. The translation of the hyperlinks content is not

a source of challenge; since they contain usual and recurrent text-types.

The crucial step for translators is to choose the links that should be

translated within the webpage. They should decide whether the content of

the link is useful and functional for the target audience or not. Afterwards,

translators can decide to translate it or not, and which translation strategies

to follow if they have to translate them.



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2.5.4 Photography:

An enlightening image could speak a thousand words. Even the best

description of any destination would not capture consumers' attention, nor

arouse emotional responses or encourage viewers to navigate a location

more than image taken from the right vantage point. Tourism websites

ordinarily combine images with short texts that describe them. Lots of

images are included in support of textual content promoting a specific

destination, amenity or promoted activities. For instance, Cyprus Tourism

Website features a photo combining a sea bottom next to a rocky mountain

top. The two photos are combined into only one picture that sustains what

the text typed on them is saying "From the bottom of the sea, to the top of

the world in no time". Having a rocky sea-bottom very close to a rocky

mountain top may indicate the very short journey tourists need to travel

from the sea to the mountain.

Image (28): Text-Photo Combination

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website



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The same idea is depicted in a photo featuring the steps of a

historical amphitheater next to the layers of a ship. The text, "From

admiring history to exploring the present in no time" is typed across the

two pictures.

Image (29): Text-Photo Combination

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website

The only difference between the English and Arabic versions of the

same homepage is that in the English copy, the texts start from the left and

the picture ends on the right. Whilst, the Arabic copy starts the texts from

the right and ends with the picture on the left.

Image (30): Text-Photo Combination

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website



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Image (31): Text-Photo Combination

Source: Cyprus Tourism Website

2.5.5 Videos:

If a photo is appealing, a video is doubly appealing and enticing. The

phenomenon of video-inclusion has matured to the extent that videos have

become effective marketing practice. Suffice it to say that videos aspire to

movement and action. They help users to interact with the place; viewers

can play or stop them at the moment they need to. Modern tourism

websites have begun integrating video clips into their homepages. Videos

might have photographs linked to a video feature. They are used to take the

viewer through the most attractive scenic features of the country.

Alternatively, they might be real time action true tourists have experienced.

Whatever the motive behind deploying a video clip is, Barfield's (2004:

141) basic principle of video use is that "video can say something that

would be impossible or difficult to say with a lighter-weight medium such

as graphics, photos or texts".



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2.5.6. Electronic Maps

Maps are one of the numerous interactive varieties tourism websites

afford. Neither one of the sites under study is exempt from the maps option,

because these are important part of online tourism promotion. Maps are

variable in type; some guide potential customers to find a geographical

location; others help finish booking transactions. The two map types,

however, are indispensable. Providing essential geographic information

about the different locations in the country is the first function maps are

designed for. Secondly, maps supply multiple conversion-related functions

such as showcasing the country's prime features and places' proximities.

Switzerland Tourism Website offers the country's map that empowers a

navigation scheme through the country. By clicking on any part of the map,

the navigation system helps zooming in on one of the country's regions.

Viewers are then transferred into a web page suggesting a variety of hotel

options related to the selected region. Mousing over any one of the hotels

given reveals the hotel's name, address, location and other information.



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Image (32): Hotel- Electronic Map

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website

Customised graphical maps are multi-property. They allow more

information on the place amenities surrounding the hotel chosen in the first

map. Here, a map turns into a powerful tool to increase usage of the web.

The map shown involves a variety of options for accommodation such as

typically Swiss hotels, hotels, apartments, group accommodation, youth

hostels and campsites. When requesting a hotel's name, another menu

opens to provide a more customised and personalised service. It enables

customers to choose the hotel star rating they want.



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Image (33): Electronic Hotel Map Providing Accommodation Options

Source: Switzerland Tourism Website

Image (34): Electronic Hotel Map Providing Hotel Rating Stars

Switzerland Tourism Website



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2.6 Conclusion

This chapter identifies the web content, content quality and

Interaction Design elements as the main three effective criteria of tourist

website content. Content has been divided into two main types, static and

dynamic content. The static content includes regular text-types average

readers encounter in other places other than tourist websites. However, the

dynamic content on the web includes almost every element the new media

developments have brought. The research handled only the basics of which

tourist content is made. These are colourful images, typography, video clips

and electronic maps.

From the examples extracted, the Interactive Design elements were

not a huge source of difficulty for translators. This is because the tourism

cluster has developed into a business by itself, and the design elements

have acquired new meanings and associations known to tourism publishers

and translators. For instance, translating colours has become easy due to the

standardised perception of colours' meanings the new media has brought in

the context of tourism. Typography as well, can be transferred by the same

font type or size. With regard to images, there has been no restriction in the

use of pictures unless they are useless or inappropriate for the TC.

Translators of the tourist genre have a strong power to make decisions in so

far as they do not harm the informative or appellative functions of the texts.

As for the video clips and maps, most of them in the websites under study

were left as they were found in their original versions. Translators might



64

find it difficult to bring the tape script of the videos in the SL and translate

them into the TL, and produce them into a target video clip once more.

Therefore they opt to retain the same material and content and use it as part

of the website's appeal.



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Chapter Three

Translatability of Website Genre Norms



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Chapter Three

Translatability of Website Genre Norms

3.1 Introduction

It has already been mentioned in the previous chapter that

establishing pleasurable web presences relies heavily -albeit not only- on

the Interaction Design elements. Interestingly, these elements make the

visual encounters on the web more interactive and the offers more

convincing. Still, fundamental to this investigation is the belief that

Interaction Design elements, more often than not, occur in tandem with

variable textual patterns. From the word level to entire webpages, texts play

a key role in drawing tourists' attention to the destination.

The textual patterns, however, may sound like too broad of a notion

here. More precisely, this chapter will study the linguistic features of the

tourism website genre (whether words, phrases or sentences) and will

explain the strategies used to translate them. Additionally, the chapter will

shed light on the repeatedly used stylistic devices in the tourism genre. The

researcher will show examples where the translations of the genre norms

were successful and where they were less so and will explain the rationale

behind making these judgments.

The researcher will rely on the Systemic Functional Approach (SFA)

which works from the premise that the structures and features of language



67

are connected to their social function and context. In other words, language

is always used the way it is in order to achieve specific functions which

will not be appropriately achieved otherwise. Eggins (2004: 384) explains

the word 'Functional' in relation to the work the language does in a specific

context. Moreover, the author justifies the use of the word 'Systemic' to

refer to the organisation of language to get things done within a particular

context. Language users are subsequently provided with the chance to

choose how to realise social purposes through linguistic means. This is a

dynamic way that language realises social purposes and contexts as specific

linguistic integrations. Simultaneously, the social purposes and contexts

realise language as specific social actions and meanings. For the moment,

we understand that language and context within the SFA configure a

reciprocal relationship. The language leads to realise the social purposes of

the context, while context explains why the language is used the way it is

used.

The SFA is very much congruent with the Hallydian Model. Munday

(2008: 90) explains this model as one that is "geared to the study of

language as communication, seeing meaning in the writer's linguistic

choices and systematically relating these choices to a wider socio-cultural

framework". Halliday's Model accordingly will prove to be essential for

connecting language use with the social functions they do in tourist

websites, and showing how they are all conditioned by the constraints of

the linguistic features and cultures of the ST and TT. Eventually, the



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idiosyncrasies of the internet medium accompanied with a specific mode of

language use have given rise to a new cyber-genre- the tourism websites.

3.2 Tourist Websites as a Cyber Genre

Texts had received variable taxonomic views throughout the western

tradition. They were given their genres depending on their salient linguistic

features or functional purposes in a specific social surrounding. Genre, for

one thing, Caballero (2008: 14) says basically means a "kind or sort” (from

French genre and Latin genus). Santini (2004: 3) gives a broader definition

for genre. S/he defines it as a distinctive category of discourse which shares

common forms of transmission, purpose and discourse properties. In a

narrower sense, Martin (1985: 251) states that genre means how things are

done when language is used to accomplish them. The term genre, s/he says,

is used to embrace each of the linguistically realised activities and verbal

strategies used to accomplish social purposes of many kinds.

The World Wide Web is a medium whereby social interaction is

continuously increasing. Therefore, websites have evolved into their own

genre. More specifically, tourism websites have developed into a cyber

genre enjoying its own linguistic features. Erickson (1999: 2) defined cyber

genre as a pattering of communication created by a combination of the

cognitive, social, and technical forces implicit in a recurring

communicative situation. These texts share a set of conventions and rules

which facilitate interaction by creating and maintaining expectations



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among a community of producers and consumers (cited in Koskensalo,

2012: 6).

3.3 Variable Text-types Within Genre

Santini (2006: 67) described web pages as noisy on the physical and

textual levels. This view is justified on the ground that web pages have a

compacted linguistic and presentational content. One important feature of

tourist webpages is that they contain more than one text-type on the same

page. All texts lead to creating a coherent web page that communicates one

and only social function attributed to it. Hence, Dong et al. (2004: 2) found

it difficult to set boundaries between different text-types in tourist web

pages or to exactly tell when one has crossed from one type to another.

These texts hardly correspond to an ideal type. This phenomenon is a

labelled by Santini (2007: 1) as genre hybridism which accounts for the

availability of multi text-types within the individual web page. For

exemplification, Egypt Tourism Website features one page which promotes

The Red Sea beaches and the pyramids of Giza as romance destinations.

The page uses a reference to Cleopatra's love story with the Roman

emperors Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony. Additionally, the same page

emphasises the authenticity of these places. It taps the readers' emotions

through using multisensory descriptions, all on one page. As a result of

such multi-functionality in the tourist website texts, web translation has

become very specialised. It requires special skills and competencies at

various levels. Cappelli (2007: 8) says that translators, at the linguistic



70

level, "need to acquire the strategies required by the promotional aim of the

text".

Simply put, tourist webpages are complex objects that are

instantiated with traditional text-types. These types include informative,

expressive and vocative texts. All combine together to create texts of one

genre, which is the tourism genre in this case. Merkaj (2013: 321) aptly

defines tourism web pages as they are language-like in their properties;

they have specialised vocabulary and a semantic content; they convey

messages and adopt a special register; they are well structured, and they

follow certain grammar rules; all of these features are used to influence

attitudes and behaviours.

3.4 The Linguistic Features

Several verbal techniques have been ascribed to the tourist web

content. They communicate messages of which the informative and

appellative functions are the most apparent ones. Arguably, tourist texts

utilise lexis known for their semantic accessibility. Ordinary people can use

these lexemes in non-specialised environments. For this reason, the

complexity of the tourist web content may be underestimated by

translators. Pierini (2007: 99) warns that "[the tourist web content] may

appear deceptively easy to translate with its extensive use of general

language; yet it is a specialised discourse with specific linguistic/ cultural

features" (cited in Merkaj, 2013: 322). Along the same lines, Cappelli



71

(2008: 1) maintains that "everyday life content can act as accessible but

functionally specialised lexical items and thus contribute to the

specialisation of the genre of tourism discourse as a whole". Henceforth,

the research will be grounded in an approach that deals with a specialised

discourse and lexical meanings. All are seen as a complex system emerging

from the linguistic, cognitive and contextual factors of the tourism genre.

3.4.1 The Imperative Structure

One primary function tourist webpages do is valorising destinations.

This comes to life through spatial representations or points of contact

between the individuals and the targeted objects. Salim and Hassan (2012:

139) define valorisation as "providing information to visitors about the

destinations and encouraging them to appreciate and care for these places".

Tourism promoters believe that valorising their destinations is so important

due to the assumption that "a prior disjunction between the individual and

his destination is implicitly asserted and a final situation of conjunction is

implicitly promised. This is the basic narrative syntax of tourist websites"

(Mocini, 2009: 154). Notice how the following excerpt valorises its

destinations:

بطعم تلذذو, البرج األكثر میال حول العالمفي مطعم ایتین دیغریز في تناول طعامك 

أیضا و تمتع.بقصر اإلمارات أحد أفخم فنادق العالمالمشویات في ظل أجواء رومانسیة ساحرة 

Abu Dhabi)المطاعم الدوارةبالمناظر المطلة على المدینة من كامل الجھات لدى زیارتك

Tourism Website..(



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Dine at an 18 degrees incline in the world's furthest leaning tower,

savour a romantic BBQ at Emirate's Palace, one of the world's most

opulent hotels, enjoy 360 degree city views from revolving restaurants

(Abu Dhabi Tourism Website).

The ST and TT above obviously provide verbal invitations to the

readers to try the suggested experiences. Through these verbal references,

the text publishers inform readers and develop their curiosity towards the

destinations. The ST is originally created to foreground these targeted

objects. Translators fulfill the informative function through faithful

translations. These destinations are العالم"البرج األكثر میال حول  , قصر اإلمارات and

Likewise, the translated version was ST-oriented and ."المطاعم الدوارة

preserved all of them, "the world's furthest leaning tower, Emirate's Palace

and revolving restaurants".

Appeal on the other side is achieved through the equivalent format of

the ST. The ST is obviously formed out of characteristically simple

imperative structures that start with directive verbs ,تناول طعامك" تلذذ and

"تمتع respectively. The imperative structure therein perfectly suits the

snappy style of promotion. Woods (2006: 25) assumes that, in tourist

websites "we don't find complex sentences or utterances containing many

parts, but rather the use of short, snappy structures that facilitate fast and

easy comprehension".  Hence, the translated version remains faithful to the

ST directive verbs and gives the renderings "dine, savour and enjoy". For



73

further illustration, notice how the imperative structures are

overwhelmingly pervasive in the following excerpt and its translation:

یفیرا البحر األحمر أو على سطح سفینة سیاحیة فاخرة تمتع بالشمس في منتجعات ر

, تنزه على طول الشواطئ العالمیة الشھیرةتبحرعلى طول نھر النیل,استسلم للراحة في المنتجعات

و تمتع  بالمشھد المذھل لمنحدرات الساحل األبیض المتوسط. اكتشف عادات البدو وشاركھم في 

بلعبة الغولف على بعد بضع أمتار من أھرامات الجیزة حفل عشاء في قلب الصحراء. استمتع 

العظیمة. التجئ إلى المساحات المفتوحة في الصحاري المصریة. اذھب لرحلة یوم واحد إلى متنزه 

على نفسك تجربة ال تفوت . قریب لالستجمام في بیئات طبیعیة غنیة وفریدة من نوعھاوطني

لرؤیة الشعاب المرجانیة الخالبة الغطس في المیاه الدافئة في البحر األحمر (Egypt Tourism

Website).

Sunbathe in exclusive Red sea Riviera resorts or on the deck by a

cool pool on a luxury Nile river cruise. Surrender to the comforts of world

renowned spas. Walk a long pristine beaches and enjoy the sight of the

stunning coastal cliffs in the white Med. Try a Bedouin seaside dining

experience. Enjoy a leisurely game of golf with view to the great pyramids

of Giza. Escape to the open spaces of Egyptian deserts. Go for a day trip to

a nearby national park to unwind in rich natural environments unique to

Egypt. Don't miss out on snorkeling in the warm waters of the Red Sea to

see spectacular coral reefs (Egypt Tourism Website).

In the foregoing texts, the informative and promotional techniques

were woven together. On the informative side, the TT remains faithful to

the specific destinations or activities mentioned in the ST. On the



74

promotional side, it is the imperative structure that runs through both texts;

and it well carries off the appellative function. By and large, it lies at the

heart of the discussion that the ultimate objective of tourist texts is always

promotional. Quoting Woods (2006: 9) "for whether the presentation "is

soberly informative, lyrically imaginative, weirdly abstract or just

unashamedly price-busting…promotional texts are there to persuade us to

think, and more importantly to act in certain ways". So far, the imperative

structures have proven to be typified and conventionalised to the

promotional tourist texts. However, not all TTs are equally successful to

transfer the same extent of promotion. Consider the following example:

Soar to the top of Mount San Jacinto, hike through palm groves and

along stunning scenic trails. Ride a cruiser through the scenic

neighborhood, enjoy the Spanish style and mid-century modern

architecture. Tour world class museums, leaving time for dining alfresco

and walking to entertainment venues under the stars (Malaysia Tourism

Website).

ى طول مسارات حلق إلى أعلى جبل جاس ینتو, من خالل رفع بساتین النخیل القدیمة و عل

ركوب الطراد و من خالل المناظر الطبیعیة الخالبة, والتمتع بالمناظر المذھلة و المتاحف العالمیة 

ء ذات الطراز االسباني والھندسة المعماریة الحدیثة و ترك بعض الوقت لتناول الطعام في    الھوا

(Malaysia Tourism Website).الطلق والمشي إلى أماكن الترفیھ

The English ST above enjoys snappy imperative structures that the

Arabic TT fails to deliver, except for the first imperative verb ."حلق"



75

Instead, the translator preferred to use the nominal structures رفع بساتین" 

,النخل القدیمة"  التمتع بالمناظر المذھلة and ."ركوب الطراد Though the nominal

structures toned the forcefulness of the structures considerably, the Arabic

text is still capable of communicating the same information to the readers.

Therefore, it can be argued that the TT was successful to transfer the

informative part, but not equally successful to transfer the promotional one.

The basic contextual purpose of promotion in tourist texts makes it

necessary, or at least preferable, to retain the snappy imperative structures

in the TT. Ip (2012: 7) justifies this as "imperative structures are a more

passionate language that elicits from readers an urge to take part in the

tourist experience". Nominal structures notably fail to offer this passionate

language.

3.4.2 Superlatives

One of the most significant characteristics of the tourist language is

using the superlative structures. The ST featured the phrases میالاألكثرالبرج "

"حول العالم and أحد أفخم فنادق العالم rendered by "the world's furthest leaning

tower" and "the most opulent hotel". Superlatives structures are utilised by

the web publishers to compare the advertised location to other less

attracting destinations. Dann (1996: 137) noted that the superlative

structures are used to,

emphasise that a given destination possesses a number

of attributes for which demand can be stimulated. These



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qualities are brought to the attention of a targeted

public. And, the comparative advantages of the

destination are sufficient to encourage a temporary

relocation from the home environment.

The superlative structures appear to be not too difficult to

translate from Arabic into English and vice versa. There was not any

single case where the superlative structures were not preserved through

translations or were inappropriately translated. They are too essential to

ignore. Web publishers heavily depend on them to persuade readers of

the places’ superiority and distinction from others. It is worthwhile

mentioning though that even the best quality of translation cannot

create the exact shadows of meaning the source superlative structures

create. Still, translators tend to preserve them while on duty, as they are

very successful to communicate the informative and promotional text-

functions alike.

3.4.3 Emphatic (Euphoria Language)

A very similar feature to the superlative structures is the emphatic

language.  In truth, tourist language rarely comes across what is average or

normal. Dann (1996: 65) says that "the discourse of tourism is a form of

extreme language". The Euphorial texture manages to describe destinations

as forcefully and impressively as possible with the fewest number of

words. More significantly, it is a linguistic feature that lessens or even



77

omits the negative features of the place. Cappelli (2006: 17) notes that, "the

tourist language is highly emphatic and rich in every positive evaluative

terms such as great, awesome, [perfect, ideal, superlative and rich]".

Consider how the Interlaken Region of Switzerland was described,

In Interlaken there is a wide range of unique opportunities for

paragliding and seeing extraordinary views of the lakes and mountains. As

a passenger, you need no previous experience; you are given a few

instructions and then a few steps later you lift off with your pilot. Getting

an unusual bird's eye view of the unique Jungfrau panorama is sure to make

you forget everything else for a while! (Switzerland Tourism Website).

انترالكن ھنالك نطاق واسع من الفرص الفریدة من نوعھا من أجل الطیران الشراعي يف

ناظر غیر العادیة للبحیرات والجبال. وكمسافر ال تحتاج إلى خبرة سابقة، ویتم إعطاؤك ورؤیة الم

بضعة تعلیمات ثم تتبع بخطوات الحقاً ویتم رفعك مع طیارك. الحصول على منظر غیر عادي 

الفریدة من نوعھا من المؤكد أن تجعلك تنسى كل شيء آخر لوھلةبعین الطیر للبانوراما الیونغفراو

(Switzerland Tourism Website).

Emphatic language can be realised through hyperbolic phrases and

expressions. These feature in the ST as "unique, extraordinary and unusual

bird's eye view". They were faithfully translated as "الفریدة, و منظر  غیر العادیة

These expressions maximise the persuasive power the ."غیر عادي بعین الطیر

text enjoys. The prevalence of the hyperbolic language communicates

implicit messages that the tourists would enjoy their time to the fullest.

Woods (2006: 22) considers hyperbolic language as "a rhetorical device of



78

exaggerating a statement far beyond its literal meaning. This kind of

language is meat and drink to [tourist] promoters, although it has to be used

subtly if it is not to be overwhelming".

A good note to strike here is that the ST and TT above repeated

using the lexical word 'unique' and its translation ‘ Though the word .'الفریدة

is powerful in explaining the uniqueness of Interlaken Region, it might

have been a better choice to opt out for another lexical choice. The region

is extraordinary in its beauty; this is the real meaning behind the word

'unique'. Both languages have an immense number of vocabulary, and

many other lexical words could have done the function. Other words that

can successfully communicate the same meaning and be at the same time

very promotional are "beautiful, lovely, wonderful, beauteous, magnificent

and picturesque/stunning/or breathtaking". Their Arabic translations will be

The best choice would be ."جمیلة و ممتعة و فاتنة وبھیجة ورائعة وخالبة" the most

powerful one which abbreviates all the aspects of meaning the other words

carry. It might be the word "picturesque" and its translation "الخالبة" or

"magnificent" and its translation "الرائعة" in this particular case. These two

lexical choices connote an extreme and impressive beauty, which is what

the original ST intended to articulate.

Euphoria language employs un-prefix initiated adjectives as one of

its promotional strategies. Consider the following example, "The late

Jacques Cousteau, a world-renowned oceanographer, once described

Sipadan Island as an untouched piece of art" (Malaysia Tourism Website);



79

1). It was translated as یصف الراحل جاك كوستو والذي یعد أحد أشھر علماء المحیطات"

"لم تعبث بھا الید البشریةفي العالم جزیرة سیبادان بأنھا لوحة (Malaysia Tourism

Website) ;1). Abundant similar word-structures are used in the touristic

texts, like "Gentle hills, peaceful woods, the unpolluted lakes and

rivers, picturesque villages-and all just a stone's throw from the

Alps"(Switzerland Tourism Website) ;2),"This well-preserved,

uninhabited marine park extends over a number of islands, with PulauPayar

being the largest" (Malaysia Tourism Website) ;3) and "The variety of

plant and animal life and the unspoiled scenery make Cyprus one of the

most beautiful places for appreciating nature" (Cy