An-Najah National University 

 

Faculty of Graduate Studies 
 

 

 
 

 

 

 

ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF 

PALESTINIAN GOVERNMENTAL PRACTICES 

ON SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL SOLID 

WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE WEST BANK 

 
 
 

 
By 

Muna Ayman Saed Shbita 
 

 

 
Supervisors 

Dr. Mohammed Alsayed 

Dr. Shadi Sawalha  

 

 
This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of 

Master of Engineering Management, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National 

University, Nablus-Palestine. 

 
2023 



ii 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 
 

ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF 

PALESTINIAN GOVERNMENTAL PRACTICES 

ON SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE 

MANAGEMENT IN THE WEST BANK 

 

 

By  
Muna Ayman Saed Shbita 

 
 

 
This Thesis was Defended Successfully on 20/08/2023 and approved by 

 
 

 



iii 

Dedication 

I dedicate this thesis to my beloved mother the most affectionate 

person in the world, who is encouraging and helping me to fight hard to make my 

dreams come true. Mom thank you for being a constant source of support 

during life and through the process of pursuing a master's degree. 

I am truly thankful for having you in my life. 

To my lovely father, the source of power and support who raised me 

until I became what I am today. 

To my brother and sisters for their everlasting support and help. 

I dedicate my thesis with big love. 

  

  

 

  



iv 

Acknowledgments 

First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Shadi Sawalha for his effort, 

guidance, supervision, and encouragement during this work. I would also like to thank 

Dr. Yahya Saleh and Dr. Mohammad Al- Sayed for their help and guidance.  

I would like also to express my appreciation to all teachers and employees at the 

Engineering Management Master Program at An-Najah National University. 

Finally, I gratefully acknowledge all who, directly or indirectly helped me complete my 

thesis successfully. 

 

 

  



v 

Declaration 

I, the undersigned, declare that I submitted the thesis entitled: 

ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF 

PALESTINIAN GOVERNMENTAL PRACTICES 

ON SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL SOLID 

WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE WEST BANK 
 

I declare that the work provided in this thesis, unless otherwise referenced, is the 

researcher’s own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or 

qualification. 

 

 

 

  



vi 

Table of Contents 
 

Dedication ............................................................................................. iii 
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................iv 
Declaration ............................................................................................. v 
Table of Contents .....................................................................................vi 
List of Tables ........................................................................................ viii 
List of Figures ........................................................................................ ix 
List of Appendices .................................................................................... x 
Abstract ................................................................................................ xi 
Chapter One: Introduction and Theoretical Background ..................................... 1 
1.1 Overview ........................................................................................... 1 
1.2 Theoretica Background .......................................................................... 1 
1.3 Solid Waste ........................................................................................ 3 
1.4 Solid Waste Management (SWM) ............................................................ 5 
1.4.1 SWM in the World ............................................................................. 9 
1.4.2 SWM in Palestine ............................................................................. 12 
1.5 Sustainability ..................................................................................... 13 
1.5.1 Sustainable Solid Waste Management (SSWM) ........................................ 15 
1.6 The Status of Solid Waste in Palestine ...................................................... 19 
1.6.1 Waste Generation ............................................................................. 19 
1.6.2 Waste Fraction ................................................................................. 19 
1.6.3 Regulations and Legal Framework ........................................................ 20 
1.6.4 The Roles of Governmental Agencies .................................................... 21 
1.6.5 Solid Waste Management Systems ........................................................ 22 
1.6.6 Tariff System .................................................................................. 23 
1.7 Problem Statement .............................................................................. 24 
1.8 Research Significance .......................................................................... 24 
1.9 Research Questions ............................................................................. 25 
1.10 Research Hypotheses .......................................................................... 25 
1.11 The Proposed Conceptual Model ........................................................... 26 
Chapter Two: Methodology ...................................................................... 27 
2.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 27 
2.2 Research Methodology ......................................................................... 27 
2.3 Data Collection approaches ................................................................... 28 
2.3.1 Questionnaire .................................................................................. 28 



vii 

2.3.1.1 Questionnaire Designe ..................................................................... 29 
2.3.1.2 Questionnaire Population and Sample Size ............................................ 30 
2.3.2 Semi-structured interview ................................................................... 32 
2.4 Data Analysis Techniques ..................................................................... 32 
Chapter Three: Results and Analaysis .......................................................... 33 
3.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 33 
3.2 The Analysis of Survey Response ............................................................ 33 
3.2.1 Response Rates ................................................................................ 33 
3.2.2 Descriptive Analysis.......................................................................... 34 
3.3 Questionnaires Analysis........................................................................ 34 
3.4 Assessment of Outer Model (Measurement Models) ..................................... 35 
3.4.1 Convergent Validity .......................................................................... 35 
3.4.2 Discriminant Validity ........................................................................ 38 
3.4.3 Discriminant Validity Assessment ......................................................... 39 
3.5 Assessment of the Inner Model (Structural Model) ....................................... 40 
3.5.1 The Coefficient of Determination (R²) .................................................... 41 
3.5.2 The Effect Size (F²) ........................................................................... 41 
3.5.3 The Goodness of Fit (GoF) for the Model ................................................ 42 
3.5.4 The Significance of the Path Coefficients - Hypothesis Test ......................... 43 
Chapter Four: Discussions, Conclusions and Recommendations .......................... 46 
4.1 Overview .......................................................................................... 46 
4.2 Discussion of Results ........................................................................... 46 
4.2.1 Discussion of GP Status in Palestine ...................................................... 46 
4.2.2 Discussion of SSWM Status in Palestine ................................................. 47 
4.2.3 Hypothesis Testing Discussion ............................................................. 49 
4.3 Barriers that Prevent the Proper Implementation of SWM Solutions .................. 49 
4.4 Technical options for solid waste management ............................................ 50 
4.5 Conclusions....................................................................................... 51 
4.6 Recommendations ............................................................................... 52 
4.7 Research Limitations ........................................................................... 54 
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................. 55 
References ........................................................................................... 56 
Appendices ............................................................................................ 63 

 ب  ................................................................................................... الملخص
 



viii 

List of Tables 

Table 1: The number of targeted manufacturing companies ................................. 31 

Table 2: The mean, standard deviation and implementation level of the governmental 
practices ............................................................................................................ 34 

Table 3: Composite Reliabilities, AVE and Cronbach’s Alpha values of research 
constructs ................................................................................... 37 

Table 4: Discriminant Validity based on Fornell-Larcker .................................... 39 

Table 5: Discriminant Validity based on Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) .......... 39 

Table 6: Weight, T- Values, and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values for first order 
contract...................................................................................... 40 

Table 7: The average R² values .................................................................... 41 

Table 8: Results of the effect size ................................................................. 42 

Table 9: Hypotheses Test Results ................................................................. 44 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  



ix 

List of Figures  

Figure 1: Waste fraction comparison .............................................................. 5 

Figure 2: Waste Hierarchy ........................................................................... 8 

Figure 3: Sustainable Development Goals ....................................................... 16 

Figure 4: Waste fraction in West Bank ........................................................... 20 

Figure 5: The Proposed Conceptual Model...................................................... 26 

Figure 6: The research flowchart .................................................................. 29 

Figure 7: The factor loading of the Outer model (Measurement Model) .................. 36 
 

 

 

 

 

 

  



x 

List of Appendices 

Appendix A: Information and Data Analysis Tables .......................................... 63 

Table A.1: General classification of wastes ................................................. 63 

Table A.2: Solid waste type according to its sources, and its main generators ........ 64 

Table A.3: The quantities of waste produced according to the area ..................... 64 

Table A.4: Average solid waste production in the West Bank according to the 
residential area ....................................................................... 65 

Table A.5: The types of solid waste in West Bank according to its source ............ 65 

Table A.6: List of sanitary landfills in the West Bank ..................................... 65 

Table A.7: Random Dumpsites in waste bank .............................................. 66 

Table A.8: Operationalization Of Model constructs ....................................... 67 

Table A.9: Sample size recommendation in PLS-SEM for a statistical power of 80%
 .......................................................................................... 69 

Table A.10: Respondents profile summary .................................................. 70 

Table A.11: Descriptive Analysis Of All Aspects Of The Questionnaire .............. 71 

Table A.12: Constructs Measurement Properties. .......................................... 72 

Table A.13: Cross loading discriminant validity............................................ 73 

Appendix B: Research Questionnaire in English ............................................... 74 

Appendix C: Research Questionnaire in Arabic ................................................ 80 

 

 

 

 

 

  



xi 

ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF PALESTINIAN GOVERNMENTAL 

PRACTICES ON SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE 

MANAGEMENT IN THE WEST BANK 

By 

Muna Ayman Saed Shbita 

Supervisors 

Dr. Mohammed Alsayed 

Dr. Shadi Sawalha  

Abstract 

Sustainable solid waste management (SSWM) is a vital and important research 

problem, which has gained significant attention in recent years. This research aims to 

assess the impact of Palestinian governmental practices on SSWM and to determine the 

implementation level of these practices in the industrial sector in Palestine. 

Additionally, it aims to identify the barriers facing the Palestinian government to 

implement their practices effectively and efficiently. 

A research model was developed and study variables were linked to achieve objectives 

and answer the research questions. The independent variable in the model was 

governmental practices, which include awareness and guidance, incentives and fees, 

laws and regulations, waste collection, and reduction. The dependent variable is SSWM 

which was studied through its environmental, economic, and social aspects. The study 

utilized a quantitative approach, where data was collected using questionnaires. A total 

of 80 questionnaires were collected from the industrial sector in Palestine, and the 

research model was evaluated using the SMART-PLS software. 

The results have indicated that the level of implementation of governmental practices in 

the industrial sector is moderate due to the presence of several obstacles, namely; 

limited financial resources, weak institutional capacity, limited public awareness 

political and socio-economic context. Furthermore, the hypothesis tests revealed a 

significant and positive impact of governmental practices on SSWM and a positive and 

significant relationship between governmental practices and the environmental, 

economic, and social impact of solid waste in Palestine. 

Keywords: Govermantal practices (GP), Sustainable Solid Waste managments 

(SSWM), Solid Waste, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). 



1 

Chapter One 

Introduction and Theoretical Background 

1.1 Overview 

This chapter includes an introduction, in addition to the general background of the 

research. The sections include the following order; general background, problem 

statement, research questions, the significance of the research, hypotheses, as well as 

the conceptual model.  

Furthermore, this chapter includes a literature review related to government practices 

for solid waste management (SWM) as well as SSWM and the relationship between 

them.  

1.2 Theoretica Background 

The remarkable economic, industrial development and increase in the population led to 

an increase in solid waste generation, which caused a high burden on governments to 

find correct and healthy ways of waste disposal (Abdella Ahmed et al., 2022). 

Also, urbanization has exacerbated the problem of waste, hygiene, and health. (Pradhan, 

2008). Developing countries are treating this issue as an urgent problem because they 

have serious negative effects on human health (Al-Khatiba, 2010). The administrators 

of SWM are now worried about how to dispose of it. If regulations are implemented, 

while taking into consideration the unique characteristics of each society, they may 

gradually progress towards higher environmental standards and reduced costs(Al-

Khatib, 2009). 

The major problems in non-industrialized countries include the public's overall lack of 

environmental knowledge and awareness and the ongoing expansion of landfill 

locations. While, in industrialized countries, the amount of waste and the shortage of 

disposal places have often been the sources of worry (Alhumoud, 2005). 

SWM cannot be solved just through technological solutions, it also requires a 

comprehensive process that takes into account the economic, environmental, and social 

contexts. Furthermore, these variables have interrelationships complicated and are 

dependent on one another in waste management systems (Al-Khatib, 2007). All of these 



2 

problems must be resolved to have a sustainable SWM solution. Most of the time, the 

problem is not environmental laws themselves; some developing countries have very 

strict laws than industrialized countries but they suffer from the absence of enforcement 

and/or the presence of workable substitutes (Pradhan, 2008). 

Inadequacy of infrastructure, limited financial resources, wrong legislation, unclear 

duties, conflicts of roles, and the absence of an effective institutional role to deal with 

SWM all lead to a bad cycle of lack of funding. This lead to poor service, which causes 

a decrease in the number of peoples who are ready to pay for these services, increase the 

depletion of the available resources, and so on. Moreover, a population expansion does 

not fit with an increase in the revenue of local governments for waste managemen 

(Mbuligwe, 2002). 

It is significant to note that the absence of strategies, policies, and clear standards for 

treating the impacts of solid waste and environmental pollution has resulted in missed 

chances to use it as a resource that may be utilized. SWM in developing countries faces 

different kinds of issues, and many of solutions for those issues are hampered by limited 

legal, financial, institutional, and technical support. As a result, the dependence on 

money donors makes SWM services unsustainable if they stop their finance (Jamaica, 

2007). 

SWM is a very serious environmental challenge that communities and countries face 

worldwide. It consists of waste collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal, in 

order to minimize environmental pollution, reduce resource depletion, and improves 

sustainable development (Rodionov, 2011). 

It aims to solve waste management's economic, social, and environmental aspects to 

obtain long-term sustainability. It is clear that the reduction, reuse, and recycling of 

waste, by adopting sustainable practices, societies can reduce the environmental effects 

of waste, protect public health, and conserve resources (Hettiarachchi, 2018). 

SSWM include many key principles which include: waste-to-energy (WtE) and 

resource recovery, waste hierarchy, source separation and recycling, public awareness, 

and participation, and extended producer responsibility (EPR) (Cointreau, 2006). 

 



3 

SSWM produce many benefits, including resource conservation, promoting public 

health, job creation, energy recovery, and reduced environmental pollution. It connected 

to the overall goal of achieving sustainable development by reducing the negative 

effects of waste generation and disposal on communities and ecosystems (A. J. Smith, 

Heistermann, M., Voigt, C., Frischknecht, R., & Stucki, M. (2018), 2018).The 

implementation of SSWM practices requires collaboration between government entities, 

the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and local communities. It also 

requires technological advancements, development of infrastructure, capacity building, 

and continuous innovation and research (Rodionov, 2011). 

As societies strive for sustainable development, adopting and promoting SSWM 

practices is crucial for creating cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable environments 

for current and future generations (Wilson DC, 2016).The manufacturing sector holds 

significant significance in Palestine, with transformative industries, notably the food 

industry, accounting for a substantial portion of total industry activities, as reported by 

the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS, 2022). Given this context, there is a 

critical need to prioritize the integration of govermantal practices within these sectors to 

effectively mitigate the environmental, economic and social consequences associated 

with waste generation. Recognizing the limited research available and the existing 

recommendations, the main objective of this study is to investigate how governmental 

practices can contribute to the promotion of SSWM in Palestine. 

1.3 Solid Waste  

Waste is defined as unwanted and unusable materials. It has different forms such as; 

liquid, solid, or vapor. Thus, solid waste is a form of waste that has been defined by 

many researchers (Bazargan et al., 2022). It is useless or hasn't an economic worth to 

anyone. Solid waste is a term used to explain the non-liquid materials that are generated 

from different industrial, commercial, and other human activities (Abdella Ahmed et al., 

2022), another definition of it is that “ it is the waste produced from homes, shops, 

hospitals, and offices’’ (Ramachandra, 2007). Globally, approximately 2.01 billion tons 

of solid waste are produced annually. By 2050, it is expected to increase to reach 3.4 

billion tons annually, which is the double amozunt of waste produced in 2016 (Sukma et 

al., 2022). 



4 

Solid waste (SW) is defined in the Palestinian Environmental Law (1999) as any non-

hazardous waste, or waste, generated by different activities, including household 

organic waste, street sweepings, hospital institutional waste, and domestic waste 

(Ramachandra, 2007), commercial, agricultural, construction, industrial waste, and 

sludge produced by waste treatment plants. At both the global and local levels, 

unsuitable SW disposal affects all the important elements of the living environment (air, 

land, and water) (Litman, 2011). 

Although waste generation is important and is predicted to keep increasing, 

approximately, 50% of urban waste from emerging nations is still not being collected 

(Kaza et al., 2018). SW may be non-recyclable and recyclable items that were generated 

through different social activities, but it does not have any worth to the user. The 

composition of SW differs from one country to another depending on its economic 

status, industrial activities, lifestyle, and SWM systems, in addition to social level and 

domestic activities (Zhu et al., 2020). 

Table (A.1) in Appendix (A) shows the waste description ordering to its type 

(Broomfield, 2015). For example, as Figure 1 (a) and according to (MOLG, 2019), 

organic waste represents 50%, while plastic represents 14.6% of SW in the West Bank 

(MOLG, 2019). If these percentages are compared to another country such as the 

Netherlands, organic waste constitutes 33%, while paper constitutes 20% of SW as 

shown in Figure 1 (b), while Figure 1 (c) shows Malaysian waste fraction which 

contains 45% food, 13% plastic and 9% papers (Tenaga, 2019).One indicator of urban 

planning challenges, particularly in developing nations, is the percentage of waste that 

is uncollected. This is a result of ineffective institutional, legislative, and participatory 

initiatives. As a result, waste management solutions that are suitable, legal, and 

practicable are required for solid waste governance (Hettiarachchi, 2018). 

The sources, types, and rates of waste formation must be understood in order to develop 

and operate a successful SWM system. Table (A.2) in Appendix (A) shows the types of 

SW which are; residential, industrial, commercial, institutional, construction and 

demolition, municipal services, process, and agricultural waste (Li, 2016). 



Figure 1 

Waste fraction comparison 

(a): West Bank (MOLG, 2019

 (c): Malaysian waste fraction

1.4 Solid Waste Management (SWM)

SWM adopts appropriate technologies and procedures that include generation, 

collection, storage, treatment, transportation, a

minimal risk and cost to human health and the environment, as it works to increase the 

quality of life and reduce the risks of improper waste disposal 

Significant progress has been made in policies and strategies for solid waste during the 

second half of the twentieth century, aiming at preserving environmental resources and 

reducing all environmental and health risks 

that include the processes of generation, collection, handling, storage, transportation, 

treatment, and recovery of resources in addition to the final disposal. Treatm

separation from the source is one of the most critical stages, and the waste collection 

process can be considered one of the most expensive stages 

landfills are one of the widespread methods of waste disposal because of their ability to 

take large quantities in addition to their relative environmental sustainability. However, 

5 

Waste fraction comparison  

2019)   (b): Netherlands (National Institute for Public Health, 

(c): Malaysian waste fraction (Tenaga, 2019) 

Solid Waste Management (SWM) 

SWM adopts appropriate technologies and procedures that include generation, 

collection, storage, treatment, transportation, and disposal of various wastes with 

minimal risk and cost to human health and the environment, as it works to increase the 

quality of life and reduce the risks of improper waste disposal (Lehmann, 

Significant progress has been made in policies and strategies for solid waste during the 

second half of the twentieth century, aiming at preserving environmental resources and 

reducing all environmental and health risks (Hester, 2002). SWM includes many stages 

that include the processes of generation, collection, handling, storage, transportation, 

treatment, and recovery of resources in addition to the final disposal. Treatm

separation from the source is one of the most critical stages, and the waste collection 

process can be considered one of the most expensive stages (Sakawi, 

landfills are one of the widespread methods of waste disposal because of their ability to 

take large quantities in addition to their relative environmental sustainability. However, 

 
(b): Netherlands (National Institute for Public Health, 2019) 

SWM adopts appropriate technologies and procedures that include generation, 

nd disposal of various wastes with 

minimal risk and cost to human health and the environment, as it works to increase the 

(Lehmann, 2011). 

Significant progress has been made in policies and strategies for solid waste during the 

second half of the twentieth century, aiming at preserving environmental resources and 

. SWM includes many stages 

that include the processes of generation, collection, handling, storage, transportation, 

treatment, and recovery of resources in addition to the final disposal. Treatment and 

separation from the source is one of the most critical stages, and the waste collection 

(Sakawi, 2011). Nitary 

landfills are one of the widespread methods of waste disposal because of their ability to 

take large quantities in addition to their relative environmental sustainability. However, 



6 

they are not considered a final solution for waste, as many strategies and methods have 

been developed in recent decades, which include biological, chemical, and thermal 

methods (Hester, 2002). 

As mentioned above, the components of solid waste differ from one country to another 

depending on the economic situation, industrial activities and the adopted lifestyle, 

which leads to different waste practices from one country to another. Waste 

management can be defined as the process by which waste is collected, transported, 

treated and disposed of. All operations must be carried out within legal limits to ensure 

the preservation of health and the environment (Longhi et al., 2012). SWM aims to 

address all environmental and social issues associated with waste generation and 

disposal. The objectives of SWM vary according to local priorities and contexts, but 

they generally include the following: 

• Minimize Waste Generation: The main target is to minimize the quantity of 

generated waste from its source. This can be accomplished by waste reduction 

initiatives, such as improving sustainable consumption, encouraging the 

environmental design of products, and implementing waste prevention measures 

(Smith, 2018). 

• Resource Conservation and Recovery: SWM aims to improve resource recovery and 

conservation. This can consist collection, separation, and recycling of wastes such as 

paper, plastics, metals, and glass to transfer them from disposal and reuse them in the 

production cycle as valuable and new resources (EPA, 2010). 

• Proper Waste Handling and Disposal: The suitable and safe handling, treatment, and 

disposal of solid waste are very important objectives. It includes proper waste 

collection, transportation, and disposal procedures to protect public health, reduce 

environmental pollution, and prevent the spread of diseases (Tchobanoglous, 2013). 

• Environmental Protection: SWM aims to conserve the environment from harmful 

waste effects. This includes preventing water, air, and soil pollution, reducing 

greenhouse gas emissions, and protecting natural resources by minimizing the 

extraction of raw materials through recovery and recycling (Hoornweg, 2013). 

• Health and Safety: SWM focuses on the way of saving public health and safety. 

Appropriate waste management practices assist prevent the spread of diseases, 



7 

reduce odors, and minimize potential risks to the environment and human health 

(Ramitha, 2021). 

• Promotion of Circular Economy: The main objective of SWM is to transfer from a 

"take-make-dispose" model to a circular economy path. This consists of the 

designing of waste management systems that emphasize the importance of recycling, 

recovery, and reuse of waste, this led to reducing the dependence on resources and 

reducing waste generation (Mandpe, 2022). 

• Stakeholder Engagement and Education: SWM also aims to improve stakeholders' 

participation and education, including government agencies, communities, 

businesses, and individuals. Educational programs, and awareness campaigns, 

improve waste disposal practices' responsibility and emphasize vital participation in 

waste management activity (Tchobanoglous, 2013). 

• Cost-Effectiveness: It includes improving waste management practices to reduce 

financial charges on communities, governments, and individuals (Pires, 2019). 

So, SWM is related to the Waste Hierarchy which is shown in Figure (2), where the first 

priority is to prevent waste production from its sources and the second one is waste 

reduction. For generated waste, it could be recyclable, reusable, or recovered 

(Demirbas, 2011). 

Managing solid waste is very critical for environmental, economic sustainability, and 

public health (Kumar, 2018). So effective SWM includes some activities, which are:  

• Waste Generation: Solid waste is generated from different sources, it may include 

households, businesses, schools, hospitals, and industries. The amount and 

composition of solid waste differ depending on many factors that are already 

mentioned (Ahsan, 2014). 

• Waste Collection: Appropriate waste collection is important to prevent 

environmental pollution. It includes systematic waste collection from households and 

commercial, and public areas. Waste collection tools can include curbside vans, 

communal bins, or special collection points (Ham, 2013). 

• Waste Transportation: After waste collection, solid waste is transported to disposal 

sites or treatment facilities. Effective transportation systems include waste 

transportation at the exact time and safe transfer of waste to reduce environmental 

and health risks (Nikolaos, 2008). 



Figure 2  

Waste Hierarchy  

Note: (Zhang, 2022) 

• Waste Treatment: Waste treatment includes different procedures to reduce the 

environmental effects of solid waste. The common treatment methods include 

incineration, composting, landfilling, and recycling. Recycling can provide a 

valuable material, composting is able to c

while WtE technology converts waste to energy in the form of electricity 

2011). 

• Waste Disposal: If the waste is not recyclable or treated, then it will be disposed of in 

landfills. Suitable landfills design, construction, and operation are very critical to 

reduce soil and water pollution and decrease greenhouse gas emissions 

2009). 

• Waste Reduction and Resource Recovery:

quantity of generated waste and improve sustainable consumption styles. 

recovery involves extracting worthy resources from waste by using recycling or 

reusing processes, which led to reducing the demand for new raw materials 

(Agamuthu, 2019). 

Governmental policies and regulations play a pivotal role in supporting SSWM 

practices. By applying comprehensive waste management strategies, governments can 

reduce the environmental effects of solid waste, protect resources, minimize pollution, 

and cinserve public health.

8 

Waste treatment includes different procedures to reduce the 

environmental effects of solid waste. The common treatment methods include 

incineration, composting, landfilling, and recycling. Recycling can provide a 

valuable material, composting is able to convert organic waste into nutrient

while WtE technology converts waste to energy in the form of electricity 

If the waste is not recyclable or treated, then it will be disposed of in 

landfills. Suitable landfills design, construction, and operation are very critical to 

reduce soil and water pollution and decrease greenhouse gas emissions 

Waste Reduction and Resource Recovery: Waste reduction aims to reduce the 

quantity of generated waste and improve sustainable consumption styles. 

recovery involves extracting worthy resources from waste by using recycling or 

reusing processes, which led to reducing the demand for new raw materials 

Governmental policies and regulations play a pivotal role in supporting SSWM 

practices. By applying comprehensive waste management strategies, governments can 

duce the environmental effects of solid waste, protect resources, minimize pollution, 

and cinserve public health. 

 

Waste treatment includes different procedures to reduce the 

environmental effects of solid waste. The common treatment methods include 

incineration, composting, landfilling, and recycling. Recycling can provide a 

onvert organic waste into nutrient-rich soil, 

while WtE technology converts waste to energy in the form of electricity (Kumar, 

If the waste is not recyclable or treated, then it will be disposed of in 

landfills. Suitable landfills design, construction, and operation are very critical to 

reduce soil and water pollution and decrease greenhouse gas emissions (Narayana, 

Waste reduction aims to reduce the 

quantity of generated waste and improve sustainable consumption styles. Resource 

recovery involves extracting worthy resources from waste by using recycling or 

reusing processes, which led to reducing the demand for new raw materials 

Governmental policies and regulations play a pivotal role in supporting SSWM 

practices. By applying comprehensive waste management strategies, governments can 

duce the environmental effects of solid waste, protect resources, minimize pollution, 



9 

1.4.1 SWM in the World 

Since the population has increased significantly and the amount of garbage created has 

increased, finding solutions to regulate the quantities of waste produced has become a 

priority when designing governmental plans and programs (Wilson DC, 2016). SWM 

has become a challenge for countries as a result of the increase in the quantities of waste 

generated, which led to an increase in the economic burden on countries to dispose of it. 

This necessitated the creation of national legislation, policies, and strategies to limit the 

aggravation of this problem (Tregidga & Milne, 2006). In recent years, environmental 

protection has received increased attention from a global approach to improve and 

maintain sustainable development, so new dimensions were given to legislations and 

regulations linked to waste management (Bello et al., 2022). Although there are many 

regulations and laws that govern SWM, they are not implemented. Waste creation and 

ineffective waste management systems are acknowledged as one of the causes of these 

pollutants since they provide one of the biggest environmental concerns to urban 

civilizations (Rossi et al., 2021). The majority of waste management laws are adopted 

with the specific aim of preserving both the environment and the public's health by 

preventing, restricting, or securing the negative effects of hazardous and non-hazardous 

waste as well as inert waste and managing these wastes generally (Qureshi et al., 2021). 

To address the imperative of enhancing human health and environmental protection, 

promoting reuse and recycling, implementing effective waste prevention programs, and 

establishing extended producer responsibility (EPR), it is essential to select suitable 

technologies. Consequently, there is a need for updated definitions of waste, 

byproducts, and end-of-waste to accommodate these objectives. In addition, the 

challenges of climate change and energy consumption are closely intertwined with 

SWM systems, necessitating efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and 

improve energy recovery. These are critical concerns that must be addressed in the 

long-term management of waste (Bello et al., 2022). 

The majority of countries around the world face an environmental problem caused by 

solid waste, whereby financially sustainable, socially acceptable, and technically 

feasible solutions must be sought in addition to being environmentally friendly (Zhu et 

al., 2020). 



10 

China has created sustainable solutions for SWM based on the option of converting 

solid waste into energy and increasing the frequency of waste transportation to reduce 

the spread of odors and health hazards. Follow the solution of converting waste into 

energy to the necessity of separating the waste from each other depending on its source, 

as it was noted that the separation of food waste increases the amount of energy 

produced. The Chinese government has worked to find another sustainable solution to 

get rid of organic waste and food waste by establishing decentralized composting 

stations distributed in remote rural areas (Zhu et al., 2020). The Chinese city of Macau 

suffered from an increase in the quantities of waste produced as a result of the increase 

in the population, as the government relied on following the method of landfilling as a 

way of disposal, but this solution is no longer effective due to the scarcity of land and 

its high cost, which prompted the government to conduct studies and research to find 

healthy and sustainable ways to dispose of this waste. Studies have shown that there are 

large quantities of waste that can be recycled and reused, in addition to the possibility of 

using the incineration system as a more effective alternative method for waste disposal, 

as this method can be used to produce energy (Jin et al., 2006). 

The quantity of organic waste produced by Dar es Salaam is approximately 62-70% of 

its solid waste, which can decompose to produce organic nutrients and biogas. To 

exploit this waste sustainably, the government has established a biogas plant from solid 

waste and then generates electricity from it. This project brought many benefits to the 

government, including producing high-quality organic fertilizers, protecting the 

environment from pollution, reducing solid waste quantities, and generating electricity 

(Mbuligwe & Kassenga, 2004). 

Addis Ababa has been keen to improve the efficiency and sustainability of waste at 

construction sites by using multiple management methods, including implementing 

strong management practices at construction sites, reusing and recycling residual 

materials at sites, increasing the implementation of green building specifications, and 

imposing penalties for bad waste management practices (Tafesse et al., 2022). 

The SWM system in Germany is renowned for its comprehensive and environmentally 

sustainable approach. It follows the principles of the waste hierarchy, which prioritizes 

waste prevention, recycling, and resource recovery over disposal. Here are some key 

aspects of the SWM system in Germany: Waste Prevention, Recycling, and Resource 



11 

Recovery, EPR, WtE, Landfill Restriction, Public Participation and Education, and 

Circular Economy Approach. The German SWM system is supported by robust 

legislation, including the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act and 

various federal and state regulations. Technological advances and continuous 

innovation, as well as cooperation between industry and government, lead to the success 

of SWM systems (Nelles et al., 2016). 

In Singapore, the National Environment Agency has adopted an innovative and 

comprehensive approach to SWM that focuses on “3P”, which can be interpreted as the 

private and public sectors and individuals working together to achieve sustainability in 

solid waste, as it focuses on waste recycling, waste reduction, and energy recovery. To 

reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills (Agency, 2021). Some key practices and 

initiative are mentioned below: 

• Waste-to-Energy (WtE) Facilities: Singapore has invested in advanced WtE facilities 

that treat non-recyclable waste and convert it into electricity. These facilities help 

reduce the volume of waste going to landfills and generate renewable energy. 

• Mandatory Waste Segregation: The government has implemented a mandatory waste 

segregation policy for commercial and industrial sectors. This encourages businesses 

to segregate their waste into recyclable and non-recyclable categories, making it 

easier for recycling and resource recovery (Zhang, 2017). 

• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Singapore has implemented EPR schemes 

to hold producers accountable for managing the waste generated from their products. 

This encourages manufacturers to design products with recycling and disposal in 

mind (Zhang, 2017). 

• Public Education and Awareness: The government conducts public education 

campaigns to raise awareness about waste reduction, recycling, and proper waste 

disposal practices. These campaigns aim to promote behavior change and encourage 

individuals to adopt sustainable waste management habits (Zhang, 2017) 

• Integrated Waste Management Facilities: Singapore has established integrated waste 

management facilities, such as recycling plants and materials recovery facilities, to 

process and recover valuable resources from waste. These facilities help maximize 

resource recovery and minimize the amount of waste sent to landfills (Zhang, 2017). 



12 

1.4.2 SWM in Palestine 

The SWM system in Palestine is an issue that continues to undergo development and 

improvement. Due to political and geographical constraints, there are unique challenges 

to overcome. However, there are concerted efforts to promote sustainable waste 

management practices throughout the country (Qasem, 2018). 

Waste collection services in Palestine are primarily managed by municipalities and local 

councils. However, there are disparities in the coverage and effectiveness of these 

services, particularly between urban and rural areas. Some cities have well-established 

waste collection systems, while others rely on informal waste pickers or private 

contractors to manage waste collection (MOLG, 2019). 

The most popular method used to waste disposal in Palestine is landfilling. However, 

limited available and correctly designed and controlled landfills result in inappropriate 

waste disposal infrastructure. This status introduced health and environmental risks, 

especially in areas where landfills are not fully managed (Khaleefa, 2018). 

In Palestine, recycling activities are still in the early stages. Efforts are underway to 

improve recycling activities for fixed types of materials such as plastic and paper. The 

establishment of recycling centers and the increasing public awareness related to the 

importance of recycling are the main priorities in sustainable waste management 

practices (Khaleefa, 2018). 

Early, composting organic waste is gaining attention as a way to transfer waste to a 

nutrient-rich compost for agricultural usage. Many composting projects have been 

implemented in both rural and urban areas, which offering a helpful solution for organic 

waste management (Khaleefa, 2018). 

In Palestine, public awareness activities and educational programs play a very important 

role in improving sustainable waste management practices. These initiatives' purpose is 

to teach the public about waste segregation, recycling, and the environmental impacts of 

unsuitable waste disposal. By promoting responsibility sense and changing their 

behavior, these programs support building a new culture for sustainable waste 

management (Abu-Salah, 2016). Insufficient financial resources, an unstable political 

situation, a shortage of infrastructure, and limited access to land due to the Israeli 



13 

occupation are ongoing barriers that need to be solved. These factors inhibit the 

development and implementation of comprehensive and sustainable waste management 

practices (Assi, 2019). 

International assistance is also important in solving these challenges and improving 

sustainable waste management in Palestine. Different international organizations and 

donor agencies supply technical assistance, capacity building, and financial resources to 

support infrastructure development, waste management facilities, and recycling 

activities. Efforts are being made to improve sustainable waste management practices 

over the country, that include fees and incentives implementation to encourage right 

waste managemen(Al-Smadi, 2020).  

To support these services and fund sustainable waste management practices, waste 

collection fees or tariffs are implemented in some municipalities. These tariffs are 

typically charged to households or businesses based on the quantity of generated waste 

or the level of service required. The generated revenue from these fees can be used to 

promote waste collection infrastructure, invest in recycling facilities, and support public 

awareness activities (MOLG, 2017). Besides fees, incentives also play a significant role 

in encouraging suitable waste management behavior. In some areas, municipalities have 

implemented incentive programs that reward houses or businesses for adopting waste 

reduction, recycling, and responsible waste disposal. The incentives have different 

forms of financial rewards, such as discounts on waste collection tax or fees benefits for 

businesses that implement sustainable waste management practices (Hischier, 2017). 

1.5 Sustainability 

Sustainability is considered the most important active and global topic that is discussed 

and applied in different disciplines such as social, economics, management, 

environment, and others (Rockström, 2017). Carrying capacity is considered one of the 

most common concepts of sustainability, which can explain the ability of the ecosystem 

to support the maximum number of populations in sustainable ways, later, this concept 

was expanded to reach the entire planet (Sachs, 2019). Another concept called the triple 

bottom line which is also considered a sustainability concept, emphasizes the wants to 

balance between social economic, and environmental factors (Henderson, 2019). Later, 

it become called circular economy which was improved and developed to reduce the 



14 

amount of generated waste and encouraged reuse, recycling of the resources 

(Frischmann, 2019). 

To improve sustainable practices, governments play a vital role in founding the 

regulations and guidelines, executing them, and providing economic incentives to 

promote adopting sustainable initiatives. They also have the responsibility for 

developing the policy, awareness and education, and international cooperation. They 

also increase public awareness about sustainability and collaborate with international 

institutions to solve global challenges, it also encourages innovations to available a 

sustainable future (Shen, 2020). Companies have a very important role in sustainability. 

Researches show that companies have the responsibility to work in a social and 

environmental style, as their work is expanded to developing their economy, and they 

can also improve sustainable development by adopting sustainable services, practices, 

and products (Nilsson, 2016). 

As mentioned above, there are three pillars of sustainability, which are: 

1. Economic sustainability: It is realted with economic impacts of sustainability, which 

include the best use of resources, long-term profit in addition to economic expansion 

that does not affect negatively with environment and society (Byrne, 2016)  

2. Social sustainability: This pillar is interested in human safety, education, and health. 

It also includes health care, fair work, and their rights (Waddock, 2019). 

3. Environmental Sustainability: This one focuses on the environment and its 

mechanism and resources such as air, water, and biodiversity, and how to restore it 

(Fuss, 2018). 

Sustainable management aims to control how to use industrial and natural resources in 

the best way with achieving a future multiplicity of them and finding long-term 

solutions without causing any effects on the safety and health of the society and 

environment and maleficence the economy (Ahmed et al., 2022). Where the 

sustainability concept cares about how to integrate the environmental, economic, and 

social aspects in addition to their impact, and how to make decisions without affecting 

natural resources and in the best ways that help future generations (Tregidga & Milne, 

2006). 

  



15 

The systems that support all economies and societies are very important for global 

sustainability (Statistics, 2011). The sustainability of waste needs collaboration at all 

economic, social, and environmental levels, so it can't achieve isolated actions. In order 

to achieve it, sustainable and intellectual management must be created, it may include 

staff who are able to carry out this mission with high effectiveness and efficiency. 

1.5.1 Sustainable Solid Waste Management (SSWM) 

The SSWM required in the twenty-first century includes the impacts at all stages, 

starting from the planning stage to design to the operation and to decommissioning 

stage. So, the range of existing and new waste-treating technologies and administrative 

approaches have been expanded to include achieving long-term sustainability aims and 

preserving the current quality of the environment. This ordered growth makes 

governments and waste management businesses able to share waste management needs 

with the highest level of environmental sustainability, recycle materials from waste, 

increase the renewable energy supply, and look for more acceptable social alternatives 

(UN, 2016). 

SSWM includes three main aspects referred to the following questions: 

1. What? It consists of the scope, which describes the important management and 

planning of the waste system elements and many planning and management 

challenges, such as public participation, financial management, and strategic 

planning. 

2. Who? Who does care about the stakeholders or actors? 

3. How? How strategic aims and problems should be solved and explained Resource 

Management and strategic Waste smoothly (Wilson DC, 2016). 

It is necessary to find ways and systems that prevent future resource depletion by 

generating sustainable systems and a unified waste management system, as the 

continuous depletion of resources caused by a high population has led to an increase in 

the risk of decreasing future resources. (Rodionov, 2011). Hierarchical SSWM deals 

with solid waste in an environmentally-efficient, economical, and socially acceptable 

way. The waste generation and disposal process is considered an important sign of 

sustainable behavior. So strategies and technologies for waste treatment must be able to 

achieve sustainability goals and concern about maintaining the quality of the 



environment and must be taken into account the current economic, political, and social 

situation (Pires, (2011); Rodionov, 

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) whshowmn in Figure (

global goals that everyone must work toward in order to protect the environment, end 

extreme poverty, and reduce inequality by 

United Nations is SDG 

sustainable cities and human settlements. 

Figure 3 

Sustainable Development Goals 

Note: (UN, 2016) 

This goal has a strong c

have agreed to minimize the adverse environmental impact per person caused by cities 

before 2030, with a particular emphasis on improving air quality, municipal waste 

management, and other related 

relevant SDG is SDG 12

production patterns. In this context, member states have committed to significantly 

reducing waste generation by 

reduction, recycling, and reuse, as outlined in objective 

16 

environment and must be taken into account the current economic, political, and social 

); Rodionov, 2011). 

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) whshowmn in Figure (

global goals that everyone must work toward in order to protect the environment, end 

extreme poverty, and reduce inequality by 2030. One of the 17 SDGs established by the 

United Nations is SDG 11, which aims to foster inclusive, secure, resilient, and 

sustainable cities and human settlements.  

Sustainable Development Goals  

This goal has a strong connection to the management of solid waste. Member nations 

have agreed to minimize the adverse environmental impact per person caused by cities 

, with a particular emphasis on improving air quality, municipal waste 

management, and other related measures, including international commitments. Another 

12, which focuses on promoting sustainable consumption and 

production patterns. In this context, member states have committed to significantly 

reducing waste generation by 2030 through strategies such as waste prevention, 

reduction, recycling, and reuse, as outlined in objective 12 (Albu, 2021

environment and must be taken into account the current economic, political, and social 

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) whshowmn in Figure (3), are a set of 

global goals that everyone must work toward in order to protect the environment, end 

 SDGs established by the 

, which aims to foster inclusive, secure, resilient, and 

 

onnection to the management of solid waste. Member nations 

have agreed to minimize the adverse environmental impact per person caused by cities 

, with a particular emphasis on improving air quality, municipal waste 

measures, including international commitments. Another 

, which focuses on promoting sustainable consumption and 

production patterns. In this context, member states have committed to significantly 

ugh strategies such as waste prevention, 

2021). 



17 

To achieve the goal of solid waste sustainable development, there is a necessary need 

for the chosen and published appropriate technologies, techniques, and managing the 

alternatives to decrease the amount of SW through materials recovery and producing 

energy from it. This, in turn, reduces the need of energy and raw materials as inputs for 

technical and industrials processes (Musleh, 2010). 

The application of a SSWM system can lead several positive outputs, including: 

• Environmental Protection: The sustainability of SWM conserves the environment by 

minimizing the pollution and reducing the harmful emission materials into the air, 

water, and soil. It improves suitable waste disposal and reduces the effects of waste 

on natural resources and ecosystems (Hoornweg, 2012). 

• Resource Conservation: SSWM systems preserve the conservation of different 

materials through recycling, resource recovery, and waste reductions. Which leads to 

reducing energy consumption in production processes, reducing resource depletion, 

and reducing raw material extraction (World Bank, 2012). 

• Waste Reduction: Reducing the waste generation from its source is one of the most 

important goals of sustainability, as strategies are implemented to reduce it, such as 

promoting environmentally friendly products, and the reduced total volume of waste, 

which leads to reducing the social, economic and environmental impacts that result 

from waste treatment and disposal (Hoornweg, 2012). 

• Recycling and Circular Economy: Effective SWM systems are concerned to promote 

a circular economy and recycling, as it facilitates the collection, sorting, and 

processing of recyclable materials, which leads to a reduction in dependence on raw 

materials due to the availability of valuable resources. Which reduces harmful 

emissions and contributes to the conservation of resources (Agency, 2018). 

• Energy Recovery: Incineration and anaerobic digestion are the technologies used to 

convert waste into energy, at which energy is recovered from non-recyclable waste, 

which leads to a reduction of dependence on fuel and produces renewable energy, as 

it contributes to energy saving and reduces the volume of waste that is entered into 

landfills (Psomopoulos, 2009) 

• Economic Opportunities: SSWM systems contribute to improving the economy by 

developing recycling and converting it into industries with new job opportunitie 

(Agency, 2018). 



18 

• Health and Public Safety: The correct SSWM systems reduce the risks and negative 

impacts on safety and public health resulting from the wrong disposal of waste which 

leads to the reduction of hazardous toxic materials and pollution (Cointreau, 2006). 

• Social Benefits: SSWM contributes to improved quality of life for communities. It 

promotes cleanliness, reduces litter, and enhances the aesthetics of neighborhoods. 

Public education and awareness campaigns associated with sustainable waste 

management can also foster a sense of environmental responsibility and community 

engagement (Cointreau, 2006). 

To achieve sustainability of SWM, governments plays very vital roles. First, 

governments play a crucial role in developing regulations and policies. They create 

guidelines, regulations, and standards that improved SSWM practices, such as waste 

recycling, reduction, and suitable disposal methods. By setting clear goals governments 

create a framework for waste management that is unified with sustainability objectives 

(Pizzol, 2012). 

Second, governments contribute to ensuring the provision of appropriate infrastructure 

for SWM, as they invest to develop waste treatment facilities, WtE plants, as well as the 

development of recycling centers handling (Velis, 2017). Moreover, governments 

support SSWM practices through economic tools. They for example implement taxes or 

fees on non-recyclable or non-biodegradable materials to improve waste reduction and 

recycling. Governments also provide financial facilities, grants, and support to 

companies and communities that adopt sustainable waste management practices 

(Agency, 2018). Public awareness and education are also very important in waste 

management sustainability. Governments execute public awareness, educational 

programs, and awareness initiatives to the citizens about the importance and effects of 

waste reduction, recycling, and suitable disposal. By expecting a culture of 

environmental awareness, governments authorized individuals to make informed 

options and participate in sustainable waste management practices (Dikgang, 2019). 

  



19 

1.6 The Status of Solid Waste in Palestine 

1.6.1 Waste Generation  

Information about the quantities of solid waste produced in the Palestinian territories 

varies with the diversity of its sources. Some of them relied on field surveys to calculate 

the quantities of produced waste, and some of them relied on real weights that were 

determined with scales found in waste dumps distributed in the West Bank and Gaza 

Strip. 

Based on the statistics of the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (2019), which 

divided the solid waste production sectors into the domestic sector, economic 

establishments and health care centers, the average solid waste production is estimated 

at about 2622 tons /day, or approximately 0.91 kilogram per capita at West Bank while 

it is 0.70 kg/ per capita in Gaza Strip which equal to 1330 ton /day. Table (A.3) in 

Appendix (A) shows the quantities of waste produced according to the area (MOLG, 

2019). 

Table (A.4) in Appendix (A) shows the average solid waste production in the West 

Bank according to residential area. It is clear from the data that there is a discrepancy in 

the quantities of waste produced between the rural, city, and refugee camps, due to 

several reasons, including the concentration of major markets and institutions in the 

main cities, the influx of citizens from the villages and camps to the cities daily, in 

addition to the economic situation and the different lifestyle between cities and villages 

and refugee camps (MOLG, 2019). 

1.6.2 Waste Fraction  

There are many studies and research concerned with determining the types of solid 

waste in addition to its components. Figure (4) shows the fraction of solid waste 

(MOLG, 2019). Knowing the fraction of solid waste and its sources helped to recognize 

the feasibility of separating or reducing produced solid waste such as separating metals, 

paper, cardboard, and plastics for recycling or separating and recycling organic waste. 

Table (A.5) in Appendix (A) also shows the types of solid waste depending on their 

sources (MOLG, 2017). 



1.6.3 Regulations and Legal Framework 

The problem of solid waste posed a significant challenge to the Palestinian government 

because of its significance and the effects it has on the environment, society, and the 

economy (Al-Khatib, 2009

waste sector, as they included technical and financial issues, roles, responsibilities, 

penalties, and others. These legislations include:

• Legislations that are directly related to solid waste management, such as 

Environment Law No. (

(1) of 1997 and its amendments, Public Health Law of 

• Suggested system projects directly related to waste management, such as Solid 

Waste Management and Handling Project 

(2012), and Hazardous Waste Management System. 

• Other laws that are indirectly related, the most impo

Basic Law (2003), Jordanian Cities and Villages Regulation Law No. 

Joint Service Councils Statute of (

Metrology Law No. 

Works Government, Law No. 

of (1998) on Encouragement of Investment, and the amended Agriculture Law of 

(2003) (GIZ, 2014) 

Figure 4  

Waste fraction in West Bank 

Note: (MOLG, 2019) 

20 

Regulations and Legal Framework  

The problem of solid waste posed a significant challenge to the Palestinian government 

significance and the effects it has on the environment, society, and the 

2009). Many legislations dealt with many issues to manage the 

sector, as they included technical and financial issues, roles, responsibilities, 

penalties, and others. These legislations include: 

Legislations that are directly related to solid waste management, such as 

Environment Law No. (7) of 1999 and its amendments, Local Authorities Law No. 

 and its amendments, Public Health Law of 2004. 

Suggested system projects directly related to waste management, such as Solid 

Waste Management and Handling Project 2005, Medical Waste Management Project 

), and Hazardous Waste Management System.  

Other laws that are indirectly related, the most important of which is the Amended 

), Jordanian Cities and Villages Regulation Law No. 

Joint Service Councils Statute of (2016), and its amendments, Standards, and 

Metrology Law No. 6 of (2000), and Law No. 6 of (1999) regarding Te

Works Government, Law No. 9 on Public Supplies of (1998) MOLG (

) on Encouragement of Investment, and the amended Agriculture Law of 

Waste fraction in West Bank  

The problem of solid waste posed a significant challenge to the Palestinian government 

significance and the effects it has on the environment, society, and the 

. Many legislations dealt with many issues to manage the 

sector, as they included technical and financial issues, roles, responsibilities, 

Legislations that are directly related to solid waste management, such as 

s, Local Authorities Law No. 

Suggested system projects directly related to waste management, such as Solid 

, Medical Waste Management Project 

rtant of which is the Amended 

), Jordanian Cities and Villages Regulation Law No. 79 (1996), the 

), and its amendments, Standards, and 

) regarding Tenders and 

MOLG (2017), Law 1 

) on Encouragement of Investment, and the amended Agriculture Law of 

 



21 

• In addition to approving a guide for fees, costing, and collection of solid waste in the 

MOLG (2016) in order to improve sustainability of the solid waste and the solid 

waste management system No. (3) (2019). 

1.6.4 The Roles of Governmental Agencies 

At the national level, government agencies play an important role in solid waste 

management, where the Ministry of Local Governorate (MOLG) and the Environmental 

Quality Authority (EQA), in addition to the Ministry of Health (MOH), play a major 

role in this field, while the Palestinian Standards Institution (PSI), the Palestinian 

Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), the Municipal Fund, the Union of Municipalities, 

in addition to the Ministry of Economy all play a Secondary role in solid waste 

management, each according to their specialization (MOLG, 2017). 

In general, local institutions are responsible for developing and providing appropriate 

legislative and institutional frameworks for managing the solid waste sector. In addition 

to planning, supervising, following up, and controlling infrastructure activities, ensuring 

that local bodies and joint services councils have the powers and capabilities to achieve 

effective management of this sector. 

To reduce the overlap in responsibilities and tasks, the Palestinian Council of Ministers 

2008 issued a decision to form the National Committee for Solid Waste Management, 

which includes the previous governmental agencies. The main vision of the committee 

was “Integrated and sustainable management of solid waste that contributes to 

achieving economic and social benefits to the Palestinian people (MOLG, 2014)  

The roles of joint services councils (JSCs) 

In the West Bank, with the higher council, there are 15 JSCs supervising SWM. From 

these, 14 JSCs handle solid waste collection. And just 11 focus on waste collection and 

transfer, while three JSCs (Jenin JSC, Jericho JSC, and South Gaza JSC) control landfill 

sites along with waste collection duties. The Hebron and Bethlehem Higher Council 

(H&B HC) manages Al Menya Sanitary LF, a medical waste treatment facility, and two 

transfer stations, but it is not included in waste collection. These 12 JSCs supply 83% of 

the total Local Government Units (LGUs) in the West Bank and serve 74% of the 

population. The other areas depend on the LGUs for waste management services. 



22 

Only Hebron & Bethlehem Higher Council and the JSC of Southern Gaza handle the 

responsibility of medical waste treatment in limited quantities. The Higher Council 

treats approximately 700 kg of medical waste per day, while the Southern Gaza Council 

process 1000 kg through A Pilot Project (MOLG, 2019). 

1.6.5 Solid Waste Management Systems 

The SWM system which is explained in detail in the MOLG (2019) started with a 

collection process that is executed in most Palestinian governorates through joint 

services councils, local authorities, or UNRWA. Waste is collected by using one of the 

following methods: 

• Primary collection: Where waste is collected by the competent authorities directly 

from its sources, i.e., in front of homes and facilities. 

• Secondary collection: Waste is collected from containers distributed in service 

locations. 

In both methods, the waste is transported to the disposal sites (waste dumps) or to the 

transfer stations that act as a link between the sources of waste production and the 

disposal points. Solid waste is collected using collection vehicles that differ from each 

other in capacity and working principle, mechanical vehicles or animals, or agricultural 

tractors. 

The diversity of vehicles types that used in the collection operations led to the difficulty 

of finding a technical staff who have the ability to maintain these vehicles due to the 

absence of general and unified specifications for these vehicles. An example of this is 

the restriction of driving a specific vehicle to a specific driver due to the incompetence 

of others in dealing with it, and other problems.The types of containers used as waste 

collecter points also vary, as they differ from each other in volume and capacity, as 

small containers (1m3) are distributed in residential areas, while large containers (8m3) 

are spread in central markets and industrial area (MOLG, 2019) 

After collecting waste from containers by using vehicles, it is transported to landfills for 

final disposal (waste dumps), while some areas suffered from the high distance between 

the collection and disposal areas, which enforce them to store these wastes in transfer 

stations, the storage process led to use vehicles with high efficiency. In addition to 



23 

providing a relatively suitable environment for sorting waste and benefiting from some 

recyclable materials, compared to waste dumps, which pose a threat to people interested 

in separating waste. 

After completing the collection and transportation of the waste, it is removed into the 

sanitary landfills scattered in different areas of the West Bank shown in Table (A.6) in 

Appendix (A). In the West Bank, there are three sanitary landfills (LFs): Jericho 

Sanitary LF, which serves the Jericho area, and Zahret Al Fenjan Sanitary LF, which 

serves the northern half of the West Bank. Rammun Sanitary LF, which will be built to 

serve the center of the West Bank, is another projected sanitary landfill. Unfortunately, 

other political barriers have prevented the construction of this LF. While many other 

parts of the middle area send their waste to random dumpsites, some of the middle areas 

send their waste to Zahret Al Fenjan or Al Menya LF. Despite the existence of sanitary 

landfills, their presence did not prevent the existence of hundreds of Random Dumpsites 

distributed in various areas of the West Bank (Tayeh, 2019), Table (A.7) in Appendix 

(A) illustrates in detail the locations and amount of waste of the Random Dumpsites.. 

1.6.6 Tariff System 

According to the published Palestinian government decision number (3) for the year 

2019, Each JSC has its own tariff system for SWM and waste collection. Several JSCs 

base their tariff system on the population, the quantity of waste they collect, or the 

number of homes they serve. For instance, in the Jericho JSC, the Jericho municipality 

pays the JSC a set sum regardless of how much garbage is collected or how many 

people are served. The types of applicable tariff system has an impact on waste 

reduction tactics; for instance, if the tariff system is based on the weight of the collected 

wastes, they encouraged to reduced the amount of generated waste, but the JSC will not 

be interested in such waste reduction. 

The applied tariffs in all JSCs, except Ramallah JSC and Tubas JSC, are above the 

actual cost. Accordingly, the cost recovery in six JSCs is more than 100% (maintenance 

and operational cost only). However, some JSCs suffer from a financial shortage 

because the percentage of collection fees from some of their participation is less than 

100%. 



24 

1.7 Problem Statement 

Previous studies have shown the increasing global attention on SSWMpractices and the 

importance of the role played by industrial companies and governments in applying and 

supervising these practices, whether in developing or developed countries, where 

sustainability includes economic, social and environmental aspects. 

Although governments are striving to find practices that enhance sustainability, the 

levels of application of these practices differ from one individual to another and from 

one company to another and are affected by multiple factors such as levels of 

awareness, economic incentives, and others (Shen, 2020). Despite the existence of these 

practices, measuring their effectiveness is a major concern for governments, as it 

requires measuring the impact of regulations, policies and strategies on reducing waste, 

preserving the environment and recovering resources (Abu-Salah, 2016).  

In Palestine, as a developing country, the continuous population expansion and large 

economic activity have led to an increase in the amount of produced waste. This 

prompted the Palestinian government to introduce the National Strategy for Solid Waste 

Management, which aims to suggest solutions for waste management to improve 

sustainability. Despite the presence of many systems, policies, and laws controlling 

solid waste management in Palestine, they are not totally and correctly implemented. 

Furthermore, these solutions are temporary and do not care abot sustainability in this 

field (MOLG, 2017). 

1.8 Research Significance 

Solid waste is a global problem that requires urgent attention by policymakers and 

governments, due to its danger to health and the environment. This research aims to 

evaluate the impact of governmental practices and their effectiveness for solid waste 

management, as it highlights the urgent need to develop various policies and strategies. 

In addition to identifying and evaluating government practices, it is necessary to 

identify all obstacles that prevent the correct implementation of these practices and to 

identify mechanisms for developing policies and strategies to achieve sustainability 

goals. 

  



25 

The research can also be used to guide government decision-makers and promote the 

implementation of sustainable waste management practices, which lead to a healthier 

and cleaner environment. Moreover, it could be a reference that contains knowledge on 

sustainable waste management practices, which can be used by researchers and 

academics to further research this important problem. It introduces a comprehensive 

assessment of governmental practices towards SWM, so it can help to improve 

sustainable waste management practices in Palestine, which can significantly benefit the 

environment and society. 

So, the research highlights the necessity of having a completed and integrated 

sustainable system for solid waste management. It addresses the major obstacles and 

challenges facing the Palestinian government to implement the best, effective and safe 

waste management system. 

1.9 Research Questions  

Based on the research problem, this research aims to answer the following questions: 

1. What is the implementation level of the governmental practices that encourage 

Palestinian investorst to invest in solid waste solutions? 

2. What are the impacts of SSWM on its three pillas (the environment, society, and 

economy) in the West Bank? 

3. What are the main barriers that prevent the proper implementation of waste 

management practices? 

1.10 Research Hypotheses  

To answer the research questions, based on the research problem and literature review, 

main hypothese has been developed to be tested during the research, which is: 

• H1: The governmental practices positively affect SSWM. 

While the sub hypothesis were: 

• H11: The governmental practices positively affect environmental sustainability. 

• H12: The governmental practices positively affect economic sustainability. 

• H13: The governmental practices positively affect the social sustainability. 



1.11 The Proposed Conceptual Model 

To answer and respond to the research questions, a conceptual modelthat shown in 

figure (5) was drawn by considering the previous studies and problem statement. It 

involves governmental practices as an independent variable and SSWM as a d

variable. Each of the above constructs includes several indicators that have been 

developed based on the previous literature.

Figure 5  

The Proposed Conceptual Model 

 

26 

Conceptual Model  

To answer and respond to the research questions, a conceptual modelthat shown in 

) was drawn by considering the previous studies and problem statement. It 

involves governmental practices as an independent variable and SSWM as a d

variable. Each of the above constructs includes several indicators that have been 

developed based on the previous literature. 

The Proposed Conceptual Model  

 

To answer and respond to the research questions, a conceptual modelthat shown in 

) was drawn by considering the previous studies and problem statement. It 

involves governmental practices as an independent variable and SSWM as a dependent 

variable. Each of the above constructs includes several indicators that have been 

 



27 

Chapter Two 

Methodology 

2.1 Overview 

This chapter explains the methodology used in the research, then shows the study flow 

chart, study population, how to choose the study sample, and design the questionnaire 

as a collecting data method and sampling techniques, and finally, it reviews the data 

analysis techniques to study hypotheses. 

2.2 Research Methodology  

Research methodology was defined as how the theoretical and systematic analysis of 

the approaches applied in the study is carried out (Bryman, 2016). Where it includes all 

the steps of the study, techniques, and instructions that will complete the research, 

including defined of the research problem, setting the study hypotheses and questions, 

in addition to selecting the sample, and the methods of data collection and analysis it, to 

find the final result and recommendations (Newhart, 2017). The importance of the 

research methodology is to conduct research studies in systematic, scientific methods 

with high reliability, which make the researcher generalize the final results in various 

populations or contexts (Hair, 2020). It also includes choosing the proper research 

method and data collection tools depending on the research types, the nature of the 

collected data, and analysis methods, in addition to the type of research such as 

quantitative or qualitative, and research design such as correlation, experimental, or 

observational research (Newhart, 2017).In addition to the technical aspects of research, 

ethical considerations are a very important component of research methodology, where 

researchers must take ethical principles into their account to ensure that the research is 

done in responsibly and ethical ways, in addition to protecting the rights of researchers 

(Bryman, 2016). 

Through the review of previous literature and researches, it was clear that there is no 

study related to this topic in Palestine, so to achieve the main objective, the researcher 

identified government practices and then identified the main barriers which prevent the 

proper implementation of waste management solutions in addition to measuring the 

effects of these government practices on different aspects such as social, economic and 

environmental. 



28 

Figure (6) show the research flowchart that adapted during this research, which consists 

of three main phases as follows: 

• The formulation phase involves identifying the research problem, which is the need 

to investigate the impact of government practices on solid waste and its role in 

achieving sustainability. This is followed by conducting a thorough and critical 

review of the existing literature on the topic to identify the current state of 

knowledge and any gaps or limitations in the research. Based on the literature 

review, hypotheses, and research questions are developed, and a quantitative and 

qualitative research approach is adopted. 

• The execution phase includes designing a questionnaire and evaluating it with the 

help of academic experts. The study population consists of manufacturing firms, such 

as those in the food, metal, and engineering industries, as paper, stone and marble, 

and wood industries, and then the study sample has been selected. The questionnaire 

is distributed electronically via email followed by phone calls. 

• Analytical Phase, the data collected through the questionnaire are analyzed using 

smart-PLS software to test the hypotheses. The results of the analysis are then 

discussed, and recommendations are provided based on the findings. 

2.3 Data Collection approaches 

A qualitative and quantitative approches were used to achieve the main goals, which 

include; data collection about the current situation of solid waste in West Bank, 

studying current implementing regulations and laws, in addition to their impacts on 

waste sustainability. In the quantitative approach, the questionnaire was used as a tool 

for data collection as it was distributed to the different factories, in addition to the semi-

structured interviews as a qualitative approach, where interviews were held with the 

relevant persons in the (MOLG) and the (EQA). 

2.3.1 Questionnaire 

A questionnaire is a tool that is used to collect data from targeted populations in a 

structured and standardized manner. It consists of a set of questions designed to gather 

data about particular topics, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics (Krosnick, 2018). 



Figure 6  

The research flowchart 

2.3.1.1 Questionnaire Designe

After setting the study objectives and reviewing the literature, the elements for 

measuring the dependent and independent variables were constructed, and the 

questionnaire was created. As presented in Table (

were generated. The questionnaire consisted of three parts; the first part included 

demographic information for the targeted factories. The second part aimed to measure 

the effect of government practices on factory waste, while the third part 

the impact of the practices presented in the second part on sustainable management 

from three aspects: economic, social, and environmental. The questionnaire used in this 

study was in English and Arabic language as shown in Appendix 

respectively. Taking into account that the questionnaire was distributed in Arabic 

language to the different factories

The most important tools in research are validity and reliability, which are used to 

assess the quality of the final result obtained

the results from the analytic process must be consistent, which means that they must 

remain the same when the research is repeated under the same conditions. Regarding 

validity, it explains the accuracy of the r

29 

 

Questionnaire Designe 

After setting the study objectives and reviewing the literature, the elements for 

measuring the dependent and independent variables were constructed, and the 

questionnaire was created. As presented in Table (A.8) in Appendix 

were generated. The questionnaire consisted of three parts; the first part included 

demographic information for the targeted factories. The second part aimed to measure 

the effect of government practices on factory waste, while the third part 

the impact of the practices presented in the second part on sustainable management 

from three aspects: economic, social, and environmental. The questionnaire used in this 

study was in English and Arabic language as shown in Appendix 

respectively. Taking into account that the questionnaire was distributed in Arabic 

language to the different factories 

The most important tools in research are validity and reliability, which are used to 

assess the quality of the final result obtained from the analysis process. For reliability, 

the results from the analytic process must be consistent, which means that they must 

remain the same when the research is repeated under the same conditions. Regarding 

validity, it explains the accuracy of the results (Hancock, 2010

 

After setting the study objectives and reviewing the literature, the elements for 

measuring the dependent and independent variables were constructed, and the 

) in Appendix (A), a 28 items 

were generated. The questionnaire consisted of three parts; the first part included 

demographic information for the targeted factories. The second part aimed to measure 

the effect of government practices on factory waste, while the third part aimed to study 

the impact of the practices presented in the second part on sustainable management 

from three aspects: economic, social, and environmental. The questionnaire used in this 

study was in English and Arabic language as shown in Appendix (B) and (C), 

respectively. Taking into account that the questionnaire was distributed in Arabic 

The most important tools in research are validity and reliability, which are used to 

from the analysis process. For reliability, 

the results from the analytic process must be consistent, which means that they must 

remain the same when the research is repeated under the same conditions. Regarding 

2010). To measure 



30 

government practices, which were represented as an independent variable, based on 

previous literature, 4 indicators were selected which are (Legislation and regulations, 

waste collection and reduction, fees and incentives, in addition to awareness and 

guidance). 

Also, to measure the impact of the government practices on SSWM, which was 

represented as a dependent variable, 3 indicators were selected, each of them having a 

number of items, as follows: economic impact has 7 items, while each of environmental 

and social impact has 4 items. A five-point Likert scale was used to evaluate all the 

previous items, which included the following options, from which the respondent must 

choose one of them: (1: Not at all), (2: To a slight degree), (3: To a moderate degree), 

(4: To a great degree), (5: To a very great degree). 

2.3.1.2 Questionnaire Population and Sample Size 

In research, the sample population is a subset of the larger population that is selected to 

represent it. It may consist of individuals, objects, or events and is chosen based on 

specific criteria to provide insights into the characteristics, behaviors, or attitudes of the 

larger population. The main objective of selecting a sample population is to gather 

reliable and accurate information about the larger population in a time- and cost-

efficient manner. By using a sample population, researchers can minimize the resources 

required to conduct their research while still obtaining meaningful and relevant results 

(Fraenkel, 2012). 

This research is conducted to evaluate the effect of Palestinian practices on SSWM. The 

national institution that represents all legal industrial sectors in Palestine is the 

Palestinian Federation of Industries (PFI), which consists of sixteen federations that are 

categorized according to their specialization which are; the Palestinian food industries 

union, the Metal and engineering industries union, Palestinian paper industries union, 

and Palestinian plastic industries union, etc. Table (1) summarizes the number of 

manufacturing companies that are registered in each union and the number of target 

population according to the study.  

The sampling frame is defined as the list of aimed groups at which the study samples 

are taken (Thompson, 2014). The study sample must be representative, enabling the 

researcher to generalize the results. The firms chosen to form the research sample must 



31 

meet a number of conditions, including holding valid licenses and registrations with the 

Palestinian Ministry of Economy and the Palestinian Federation of Industries. Due to 

the fact that they produced waste that falls under the categorization approved by the 

Ministry of Local Government, their economic activity is manufacturing rather than 

commerce. 

Table 1 

The number of targeted manufacturing companies 

Industrial sectors 
Members 

Number 

Percentage of 

each sector 

Min. number of the 

target population 

Food 178 45.7% 37 

Metal and engineering 136 34.96% 28 

Paper 35 8.99% 7 

Plastic 40 10.28% 8 

Total 389 100% 80 
 

While the sample size is defined as the number of individuals or observations that are 

included in a sample to satisfy the research aims. In simpler terms, it's the number of 

selected units from a large population for analysis. When conducting a study, the 

sample size is an important consideration since it affects the precision and accuracy of 

the results. Generally, more reliable and accurate results will obtain from a larger 

sample size, whereas a smaller sample size may result in greater variability and lower 

statistical power. Several factors should be taken into account to determine the suitable 

sample size, including the research questions, acceptable precision level, available 

resources, and population variability (Sarstedta, 2017). 

80 firms from 390 members were capable and could be contacted based on 

predetermined criteria. A probability sampling procedure was used to ensure a 

representative sample that allows the generalization of the final results, which is widely 

used in quantitative research studies. 

During the data collection period, which spanned approximately two months, a sample 

size of 80 responses was obtained. Hair (2011) provided recommendations for sample 

size in PLS-SEM to achieve a statistical power of 80%. These recommendations are 

presented in Table (A.9) in Appendix (A). Given that this study involves a maximum of 



32 

seven arrows pointing at a construct, the sample size obtained is sufficient to achieve a 

5% significance level with a minimum �2 of 0.25, which is deemed acceptable. 

2.3.2 Semi-structured interview 

A semi-structured interview is a qualitative research method that combines the 

flexibility of open-ended conversations with a structured framework of questions. In 

this approach, a list of key topics and questions was prepared to guide the interview, 

allowing for immediate exploration and follow-up inquiries based on the responses 

(Patton, 2015). 

This approach was used to answer the third question of the research, which is " What 

are the main barriers that prevent the proper implementation of waste management 

practices?”, therefore, this question was asked directly to the relevant persons from the 

MOLG and EQA. 

2.4 Data Analysis Techniques 

Smart PLS (Partial Least Squares) is a statistical software instrument used for Structural 

Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis. It is based on the Partial Least Squares approach, 

which is a technique used to estimate the relationships between dependent and 

independent variables. 

The conceptual model of the study was drawn using Smart PLS (V.4), in addition to 

clarifying the relationship between the main variables and their indicators. In order to 

test the hypotheses that had been set, the data obtained from the respondents were 

analyzed. 

After drawing the conceptual model and entering the data into the software, the 

following calculations were done: 

• PLS - Algorithm: The reliability and validity of the indicators and the entire model 

were examined through tests and the thresholds for each test. 

• Bootstrapping: Through it, the importance of the relationships contained in the 

hypotheses was verified in order to judge their validity or reject. 



33 

Chapter Three 

Results and Analaysis 

3.1 Overview 

In this chapter, the findings of the data gathered from manufacturing companies are 

presented. The analysis of the questionnaire responses, as well as the assessment of 

model validity and reliability, and the testing of hypotheses, conducted using Smart PLS 

software are also presented. 

3.2 The Analysis of Survey Response 

3.2.1 Response Rates 

After filtering the data collected through the questionnaire, 80 responses were obtained 

from out of 80 factories that were contacted to fill out the questionnaire, with a response 

rate of 100%. Table (A.10) in Appendix (A) shows the respondent's profile summary, 

with a percentage of 72.5% for engineers, 27.5% for administrators, 40.0% for the 

Northern governorates, 25.0% for the central governorates, and 35.0% for the Southern 

governorates of the West Bank. The results also showed that the percentage of the age 

of the factories participating in filling out the questionnaire, which ranged between 0-5 

years, is 41.25%, 6-10 is 31.25%, 11-15 is 15.0% and more than 15 years is 12.5%, 

respectively. 

The percentages of respondents also differed based on the organizational sector, which 

was as follows: 8.75% for paper industries, 10% for plastic industries, 46.25% for food 

industries, and 35.0% for metal and engineering industries. This led to different types of 

waste produced in these factories, as follows: 16.25% for paper and cardboard, 25%  

for organic waste, 22.5% for plastic, and 36.25% for metal. furthermore, it was found 

that 62.5% of this waste is collected by Joint Service Councils and 37.5% by 

municipalities. Also, 49.59% of the respondents manufacturing companies have ISO 

9001 certification, 4.96% have ISO 14000, 16.53% have a GMP, and 28.93% have 

HASAP certification. 

  



34 

3.2.2 Descriptive Analysis 

A descriptive analysis was conducted to find out the status of government practices of 

solid waste, The standard deviation and the mean for each variable are presented in 

Table (2). This study used a five-point Likert scale (1- very slight degree to 5- very 

great degree). To interpret the results, the length of the period was calculated using 

equation 1: 

�������	 	����ℎ =
(������� ������ – ������ ������)

����� ������
 �                       (1) 

So; 

=
(���)

�
 =1.33 

according to the equation, the interval length was 1.33, meaning the score between  

1 - 2.33 was low, 2.34 - 3.66 was moderate, and 3.67 - 5 was assumed high. 

Table 2  

The mean, standard deviation and implementation level of the governmental practices 

Item Mean STD. 
Implementation 

level 

Awareness and guidance 2.360 0.878 Moderate 

Waste collection and reduction 2.375 0.980 Moderate 

Fees and Incentives 2.187 0.931 Low 

Legislation and regulations 3.237 0.935 Low 

Economic Impact 2.180 0.947 Low 

Environmental Impact 2.643 0.844 Moderate 

Social Impact 2.664 0.863 Moderate 

Total Sustainable Solid waste management 2.495 0.884 Moderate 

Total for governmental practices 
implementation 

2.539 0.931 Moderate 
 

3.3 Questionnaires Analysis 

The Partial Least Squares (PLS) Approach was used by using Smart-PLS (v. 4.0.9.3) 

software to analyze the quantitative data obtained as responses to the questionnaire. 

When the conceptual model is designed, it must be taken into account that there are two 

types of variables, which are internal (dependent variables), and external variables 



35 

(independent variables) in the conceptual model. Also, the analysis using the program 

includes two main components, the first component describes the relationships between 

the latent variables which is called the structure model or the inner model. The second 

component called the measurement model or outer model, which is used to evaluate the 

relationship between the latent variable and the indicators associated with it (Hair, 

2011). 

There are also two types of measurement models, which are: the reflective measurement 

model, in which the indicators are the basic structure of the model, and in which the 

arrows are from the variable to the indicators, where any indicator can be removed 

without affecting the meaning of the variable dependent on it. As for the model in 

which the indicators cause the variable, and in which the arrows exit from the indicators 

to the variable, it is called the formative variable, as the deletion of any indicator from 

the indicators leads to a change in the nature of the variable and affects it (Hair, 2011). 

Our research model comprises 28 reflective items representing 9 latent variables. It 

incorporates both first-order and second-order constructs. The primary aim of this 

model is to explore the impact of governmental practices as an independent variable and 

sustainable solid waste management as a dependent variable.  

3.4 Assessment of Outer Model (Measurement Models) 

When assessing formative measurement models, it is important to evaluate the construct 

validity and reliability of the constructs. Convergent validity is determined by 

examining indicator reliability, composite reliability, and average variance extracted 

(AVE). Discriminant validity is assessed using cross-loadings, the Fornell-Larcker 

criterion, and the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT). These measures help ensure the 

quality and distinctiveness of the constructs in the model. 

3.4.1 Convergent Validity 

Convergent validity: refers to the extent to which a measurement aligns positively with 

other measurements that assess the same concept. When evaluating convergent validity 

within formative measurement models, three tests can be conducted to assess it: 

• Factor loadings: are indicators of the extent to which different items or measures 

share commonalities within a construct. A widely accepted guideline for assessing 



convergent validity is that the factor loadings must be 

exploratory studies, a threshold of 

LR1 was deleted due to its low factor loading. In Figure (

the items meet or exceed the recommended values for factor loadings, indicating that 

they exhibit a strong level of association with the construct.

Figure 7  

The factor loading of the Outer model (Measurement Model)

• The average variance extracted (AVE): is a measure calculated by summing the 

squared loadings of the indicators on a construct and dividing it by the number of 

indicators. It represents the amount of

concerning its indicators. According to 

indicates that the construct explains more than