1 Developing Urban Public Spaces in the City of Jericho Prepared by: Nasim Zaghab Under Supervision of: Dr. Zahraa’ Zawawi Dr. Ali Abdelhamid This Research Was Submitted as a Graduation Requirement for the Department of Urban Planning Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, An-Najah National University, Nablus. January, 2019 2 الإهداء .ي الحبيبة ـــــُأم إلى ، الوجود وسر سمة الحياة إلى ب ل الذي اقتديت به، إلى الر .إلى أبي الحبيب جل األو .اء ـــــــــب ـــــــــاإلحي ــــــــــواتــــــــــي وأخــــــــــوانــــــــــخإإلى كـي الـلـيـمـجي ــاقــفائي ور ــدقـــأص إلى .كر ـف ـر والـذ ســإلى مُ اء،ـمـسـق يـدر ي األعز :كر منهمأخص بالذ .علي عبد الحميدوالدكتور راء زواويــزهالدكتورة .واــــــلــــــحوا ور ــــــل ــــــا ح ـــــمـــــن ـــــأي ي ــــــــالئــــــــُزمإلى ــــراما ـــــــحــــــــة أريــــــنــــــديــــــي م ــــــالــــــأهإلى .الــــك ط ـــــذا الـــــه داء ــــــــــه ــــــــــُش إلى ،ـــــريـــــجـــــن الـــــو ح الل،ـــــتـــــون االحـــــجــــــي ســــــفا ــــــــــــرانــــــــــــأس إلى ن،ــــوطــــذا الــــل هـــــى ألجــــــح ــــــض ن ـــــــل مـــــإلى كُ ق ح ن ـــــــل مـــــإلى كُ .وجعلها واقًعافكرته النبيلة ق :عـــواض ــتــمُ ــاز الــجــذا اإلنــه جــمــيــًعــا ـــــم كُ ـــــديـــــُأه ي،ــــــــــجر ـــــــــــخ ــــــــــــت روع ــــــــــــشــــــــــــم ـــــديـــــُكـــــم ُأه ي،ــــرانـمــــعـــط الـيـطـخـتـة الـدسـنـي هــي فــرتــيــســه مــيــت فـمـتـتـذي اخــوال ى هذه اللحظة ة ع التحاقي بالجام ذُ ن فيه ُجل العلوم الُمكتسبة مُ واضًعا .وحت 3 تقدير َوكٌر ُش جــخــتروع ــشــة مـداد ورقـي إعــــي فــدنــاعــن ســــل مـــــر كُ ــــــــكُ ــــــــأود أن أش ذه،ــهي ــر هــــــإع ة ـــــدايـــــذ ب ــــنــــمُ هـــــجـــــان ن ــــــــرة م ــــــيــــــاألخ ات ــــظــــحــــلى ال ــــت ــــا وحــــــداد .اـــــاز ماه لي من ـأشك :اــيً ــمــاديــأك ر الدكتورة زهراء زواوي والدكتور علي عبدالحميد لما قد ُمساعدتي، لكان المشروع له شكٌل ا لي وـمـهـحـائـصـوال نـلـن، فـي ـي ـمـاديـوإرشاٍد أكنصٍح ما تذكرته، در فخـصـان مـــا كـمـا، ولـهـخر، ولكان بحاٍل غير الحالة التي أنهيته بآ ٍر لي ُكل ذا ــهــروع، فـشـمـذا الــي الذين ارتأوا لي األفضل في هــائــدقــض أصــعــب اــًض ــكُر أيــأش ة وأمام خياراٍت ُكُثر ــوهـاريــنــيــسام ــــمان أــــروع كــشــمــال ق بأريحا اٍت عد ، باعتباره يتعل ة و تها الوطني ة، وبوبخصوصي ل من نوعه -كاقتراح-تبار أن المشروع ـاعــالتاريخي هو األو ، صح واإلرشاد الكبيرين لي الن ي صدقائ حبيبة على قلبي، فقد كان أل ـة الـنـديـمـذه الـهـل مـــــا قـــــمُكـــــل ى ـــــلــــم عــــــــه ر ـــــــكـــــــن ُش ــــــــــد م ـــــال بُ ـــــف .ون ــــــعن ــــــــــم ي ــــــوه لـــــد ةـواحـنـى الـلـر عـصـتـقـ تدة الـاعـسـوألن المُ زوني أشكر أ :ي األكاديمي صدقائي الذين حف نجازه، ي إـواري فـشـي مــي فـونـمـدع ذين ــخر على إتمام هذا المشروع، وال بشكٍل أو بآ .اـهــتــالــا حـهـا ولـهـتـص ـا ق ـهـروع لــشـــمـــذا الــي هــــٍة فار ـبـورٍة وعــٍة وصـحـفـل صــكُ ــف 4 ABSTRACT The urban public spaces have always been a major concern in Palestine. The public realm in the city of Jericho is also a major concern for the citizens and for the planners. Therefore, this research and thesis focuses on the public realm and its related spaces. It presents the urban spaces in the city of Jericho, diagnosis them, evaluates them, proposes new emerging spaces and finds solutions for issues this sector might have. The City of Jericho is like no other city in the West Bank. It has what makes it special. For a starter, it is a border city. It’s the only exit a Palestinian in the West Bank can go through to the outside world. It’s has two strong economic powers: agriculture and tourism. It has a relatively well-planned road-network. It’s a sufficient city since it has its own water resources and a variety of industrial consumption fields. It has no overcrowded population. Most importantly: it has the potential for a great urban development. The research will get into the study area’s characteristics, features and aspects. Urban spaces include a variety of categories. Mainly, they’re categorized as: 1- External public spaces (parks, squares, streets, etc.). 2- Interior public spaces (municipal halls, governmental facilities, post offices, etc.). 3- Semi-public interior and exterior spaces (restaurants, museums, tourism sites, etc.). The research gets into these spaces in details. Interventions in the sector of public spaces is a must in the City of Jericho, as what the analysis will show. The city’s residents require for and need spaces that do not exist. The concept to generate public spaces for the public real is not there yet in policies that decision makers adopt. The research will get into two types of interventions: 1- City scale: projects that interfere with the city as a whole. 2- Detailed planning scale: projects that are mainly related to the city CBD. 5 Despite the scale, interventions were categorized in 5: 1- Transportation-related. 2- Tourism-related. 3- Beautification-related. 4- Greenery-related. 5- Economic-related. The main outcome of these interventions is a set of several projects that would benefit the public realm in the city. The final outcome is a masterplan with policies attached. 6 INDEX PAGE 111 CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 PAGE INTRODUCTION 1-1 PAGE RESEARCH PROBLEM 1-2 PAGE RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE 1-3 PAGE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 1-4 PAGE RESEARCH PLAN AND METHODOLOGY 1-5 PAGE DATA RESOURCES 1-6 PAGE CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2 INTRODUCTION 2-1 URBAN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CITY 2-2 CITY MORPHOLOGY 2-3 URBAN PUBLIC SPACES 2-4 DEFINITION 2-4-1 IMPORTANCE 2-4-2 TYPES 2-4-3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 2-4-4 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD URBAN PUBLIC SPACES 2-4-5 AESTHETIC NEEDS IN THE PUBLIC REALM 2-4-6 ACTIVITIES AND NEEDS 2-4-7 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SPACE 2-4-8 URBAN DESIGN OF PUBLIC SPACES 2-5 DEFINITION 2-5-1 STRATEGIES 2-5-2 GOALS 2-5-3 URBAN DESIGN IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN PLANNING 2-5-4 CHAPTER 3: CASE STUDIES 3 URBAN PUBLIC SPACES AS A WAY TO REGENERATE THE CITY OF DALIAN 3-1 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC PARKS AND THEIR PLANNING SYSTEM IN NABLUS CITY 3-2 CHAPTER 4: GETTING TO KNOW THE STUDY AREA 4 THE NAME, THE STORY 4-1 SPATIAL ASPECT 4-2 HISTORICAL ASPECT 4-3 HISTORICAL BRIEF 4-3-1 8 HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL SITES 4-3-2 NATURAL FEATURES 4-4 TOPOGRAPHY 4-4-1 WATER BODIES 4-4-2 AGRICULTURAL LAND VALUE 4-4-3 OTHER EXISTING NATURAL FEATURES 4-4-4 DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES 4-5 POPULATION TYPES 4-5-1 ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH 4-5-2 POPULATION PYRAMID 4-5-3 HOUSING, UTILITY AND LANDUSE 4-6 BUILDINGS EXPANSION 4-6-1 BUILDINGS GROWTH 4-6-2 ROADS SPREADING 4-6-3 Figure ground 4-6-4 STREETS HIERARCHY 4-6-5 BUILDINGS USE 4-6-6 THE 1988 MASTERPLAN 4-6-7 9 THE CURRENT MASTERPLAN 4-6-8 URBAN PUBLIC SPACES 4-6-9 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE STATUS 4-7 HISTORICAL ADMINISTRATIVE STATUS 4-7-1 POLITICAL CONDITIONS 4-7-2 CHAPTER 5: PROJECT JUSTIFICATION AND CITY ANALYSIS 5 PROJECT JUSTIFICATION 5-1 CITY ANALYSIS 5-2 SPACE SYNTAX AND TRANSPORTATION 5-2-1 BUILT-UP AREA EXPANSION 5-2-2 MORPHOLOGY OF THE CITY AND RELATED ASPECTS 5-2-3 BLOCKS AND PARCELS 5-2-4 AGRICULTURE 5-2-5 ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES & URBAN EXPANSION 5-2-6 CHAPTER 6: MACRO INTERVENTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS 6 EDUCATION FACILITIES 6-1 GIRLS’ SCHOOLS 6-1-1 BOYS’ SCHOOLS 6-1-2 10 HEALTH FACILITIES 6-2 RECREATIONAL AND PUBLIC SPACES 6-3 TRANSPORTATION 6-4 PROPOSED ROADS AND PATHS 6-4-1 PROPOSED PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 6-4-2 CHAPTER 7: THE CBD OF JERICHO CITY 7 INTRODUCTION 7-1 CBD DELIMITATION 7-2 CBD DELIMITATION 7-3 CBD STRUCTURE 7-3-1 DESTINATION AND BEHAVIOR 7-3-2 THE SCIENCE OF SPACE SYNTAX 7-3-3 TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE 7-3-4 RELATED ISSUES 7-3-5 CBD LANDUSE 7-4 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES 7-4-1 BUILDINGS USE 7-4-2 RELATED ISSUES 7-4-3 11 CBD FORM 7-5 2D ANALYSIS 7-5-1 3D ANALYSIS 7-5-2 RELATED ISSUES 7-5-3 CBD RELATIONSHIP WITH SURROUNDINGS 7-6 CHAPTER 8: MICRO INTERVENTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS 8 TRANSPORTATION-RELATED INTERVENTIONS 8-1 PARKING LOTS 8-1-1 STREET 8-1-2 CENTRAL BUS STATION 8-1-3 TOURISM-RELATED INTERVENTIONS 8-2 TRADITIONAL GUEST HOUSE 8-2-1 TOURISM INFORMATION CENTRE 8-2-2 ON-STREET FOLK MARKET AND A CULTURAL PARK & MUSEUM 8-2-3 BEAUTIFICATION-RELATED INTERVENTIONS 8-3 THE MAIN ROUNDABOUT 8-3-1 THE PEDESTRIAN AREA 8-3-2 THE PLAZA 8-3-3 12 GREENERY-RELATED INTERVENTIONS 8-4 THE CITY PARK 8-4-1 THE POCKET PARK 8-4-2 ECONOMIC-RELATED INTERVENTIONS 8-5 COMMERCIAL CLUSTER 8-5-1 OFFICES CLUSTER 8-5-2 POLICIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS 8-6 13 14 CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1-1 Introduction Urban public spaces are essential in society and its urban fabric. They are the core of any city’s structure and give it its special identity. They are a major indicator of whether the city is functioning well or not. An urban space is the place that contains things, people, and activities within its three dimensions. It is also described as a developing element that changes through time. The development that occurs to that space is human and urban related. Human-related development means all the activities, movements and changes that are made through time. 1 The technological development led to new activities being emerged. Such activities can be practiced within an urban space. Meaning that urban spaces need to be well prepared to adopt these activities. Urban public spaces are no longer a beautification goal, they are a core goal for a very well urbanised city. For a city that is well maintained and well balanced. A city that puts justice and balance into place between the built-up area and the natural area. A city has two major parts that cannot be separated: 1- Urban form. 2- Human form. These two forms connect at their best within cities, not within other places or regions. 1 Ashihar. Yoshinobu – “Exterior Design in Architecture”-Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York. 1981 p (14) 15 1-2 Research problem Urban public spaces in Palestine seem to be neglected and not being considered as a major part of any masterplans. Mostly, they are perceived as a luxury and not as a “must- have” element. This makes it difficult for such spaces to emerge within all the physical projects that take place within the Palestinian cities. Meanwhile, things in Jericho are not different than the conditions in Palestine as a whole. Jericho has no decent urban public spaces at all. Residents have their activities in places that are either private, or semi-public. The development of Jericho is heading to a massive urbanism within the next years. The city is massively growing more than ever. It has adopted most of the biggest scaled projects in the West Bank in the last 10 years. It has lots of people coming in and out due to the city being the main entrance and exit to and from the West Bank. It’s also an attraction to tourists. Which means it has more activities than the average Palestinian City. All of this development needs to be contained rationally. One way to do this is by forming new policies that include having urban public spaces. Being a city that is growing massively in terms of urban expansion with no expanding of urban public spaces makes it unbalanced. How can a city like Jericho with such a decent history and culture be ignoring the concept of urban public spaces? How can the people of Jericho live without such spaces? Why the lifestyle of an average Jericho city citizen doesn’t include going to urban public spaces? Why don’t the new masterplans and policies include urban public spaces as a must? 16 1-3 Research significance This research is one of the fewest that study a city from a morphological aspect. It’s also one of the most futuristic topics to discuss and adopt in the next 4-5 years. New foreign contributions orientations are heading to adopt the urban public spaces as essential projects, which was not the case in the late 90’s or the earlier 00’s. Jericho is always looked at from two aspects: 1- Tourism-based. 2- Agricultural-based. And there were no valid cases of researches where the morphological aspect is discussed or evaluated. The city is a unique morphological form and this should be the main core of one research at least, which is exactly the case on that research that you are reading. The city is seen as an agricultural, semi-rural, tourism-based, economical-core, transportation-based, and ecological aspect. The research perceives the city in two levels: 1- The city as a whole (city scale). 2- The CBD (detailed planning scale). Which makes it an interesting case to have. Since the projects in that research shall integrate between the two levels. The research has new data that are either simulated or generated in a way that was never made before. Black and white maps are no longer a decent way to decide policies upon. Normal maps that show basic facts are no longer enough for deciding the future of Jericho. The data seen in this research are mostly made by the author (Nasim Imad Zaghab) and no one else, unless otherwise is mentioned upon a certain data map. 17 1-4 Research objectives This research tries to make the city of Jericho more liveable, green and human friendly. It also tries to balance between the built-up area and the ecological area by proposing certain projects that fulfil the needs (the present and future needs). This research aims to: 1- Provide the city of Jericho with more functional facilities. 2- Provide the city of Jericho with greenery areas that are human friendly. 3- Provide the city of Jericho with modern public urban spaces. 4- Provide a city layout where the leisure, work, and transportation are all well- constructed. 5- Protect the city identity from changing. 6- Protect the tourism related areas in the city of Jericho. 7- Provide a well-planned CBD. 8- Make the city of Jericho a public transit-oriented city. 9- Make the city of Jericho more sustainable. 18 1-5 Research plan and methodology As it was pointed out previously: the research is divided into two levels. 1- The city scale. 2- The CBD scale. Here’s a diagram that explains what the methodology of this research is: Figure1: Research methodology. The research was based on three frameworks: 1- General and theoretical framework: it includes the studies that discuss the definitions of the public urban spaces. It also brings theories regarding the urban spaces from an urban planning point of view. It also includes studies that discuss the importance of public urban spaces and why should they be included as a must in any sustainable society. 2- Informative framework: this framework is the urban public spaces related data that has been collected and discussed over the past years. It’s also the descriptive maps that help to understand the urban public spaces better. It includes as well all the statistics that support the main topic of this research and makes it reliable as a future main reference to all the future projects in Jericho and other Palestinian cities. 19 3- Analytical and deductive framework: this framework merges the upper two frameworks and includes further evaluations and proposals to integrate between the human kind and the environment in the city of Jericho. This research relied on the following search methods: 1- Historical method: as in viewing the past studies that had the same topic, related theories, and related researches. 2- Descriptive methods: examining Jericho city conditions, describing the potential the city has, and putting maps all together to make the city readable as possible as it is. 3- Analytical method: relating the worldwide theories to a local city such as Jericho, modelling proposed projects, doing SWOT analysis, showing the pros and cons of the current city situations and finding the best potentials within Jericho’s geographical limits. 4- The site selection method: since Jericho is a city with so much potential, and since it is full of unsatisfied needs, it has been decided to have big proposed projects in it (i.e. a hospital, a new transportation system, an information centre, etc.). The needs were carefully studied and the projects were carefully decided. The method here uses a GIS modelling process to decide where a service should be located and why. This is granted to give the best results in any urban planning research. 20 1-6 Data resources The research relied on the following sources to get its data from: 1- Libraries: An-Najah library, An-Najah online scholar site, online Palestinian libraries, online worldwide libraries, online scientific magazines and previously made papers that are related to public urban spaces. 2- Official sources: official studies made by the ministry of local government ND Geo- Molg, studies made by Jericho’s municipality, and the 2014 proposed masterplan that was made by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs jointly with the Municipality of Jericho, the Ministry of Local Government of the Palestinian Authority and the Governorate of Jericho (the University of Ferrara supervised scientifically and technically the project). 3- Semi-official sources: researches and studies that are done by research offices, department of planning, and national universities. 4- Personal resources: interviews, surveys, questioners, and the author’s personal knowledge. The research has the following tools: Esri’s GIS, AutoCAD, SketchUp, MS software and the internet. 21 CHAPTER 2 CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2-1 Introduction An urban system consists of a group of connected cities. A city has its own size and number of functions within the system. It occupies a place within the urban hierarchy. The city has a group of elements that shape it. One of the most important elements in the city is the public urban spaces. The city has reciprocal relationships between the citizens in it and the urban environment that they live in. The urban environment contains the urban public spaces which help to make these relationships healthier, prospered and sustained. Such spaces help to overcome the issues a community would have, such as pollution, crimes, lack of available activities and so on. Such spaces are the key to a very constructed city. This chapter will focus on the theoretical parts of the research. It will define the urban public spaces, show their historical background, their importance, their types, the issues they might face, and what makes such spaces successful in terms of urban planning and architecture. 22 2-2 Urban characteristics of the city The United Nations announced in 2008 that 50% of the world’s population lives in urban areas. Half of the world now lives in “cities” and urban areas. Big cities like New York, Mumbai and Shanghai have millions of people in them. Figure 2: The center of Jericho City, 2018 (Photo source: David Lisbona). A city is a big mass of complicated activities and uses. It gained its complexity from the wide range of activities within it. It has many activities that occur on the same period of time.2 “In the city, the first things are the streets and squares, collective spaces, then come the buildings and tracks. The public space defines the quality of the city, because it indicates the quality of life of the people and the quality of the citizenship of its inhabitants.” Says, Jordi Borja. This sums up the definition of the city and the urban public spaces within it. 2 Urban Public Spaces in the City of Nablus and their development physically and visually, 2009. 23 The character of a city is defined by its streets and public spaces. When we think of great cities, we invariably think of their iconic public spaces: Times Square in New York, Piccadilly Circus in London, Avenida Atlantica in Rio de Janeiro, Azad Maidan in Mumbai and Uhuru Park in Nairobi. Figure 3: The Times Square in New York City, 2019 (Photo source: Lana Del Rey’s Twitter). From squares and boulevards to neighborhood gardens and children playgrounds, public space frames city image. The connective matrix of streets and public spaces forms the skeleton of the city upon which all else rests. Public space is a vital component of a prosperous city. Well designed and managed public space is a key asset for a city’s functioning and has a positive impact on its economy, environment, safety, health, integration and connectivity. The quality of life for people in cities is directly related to the state of its public spaces. Public space takes many forms, from the streets to parks and playgrounds of recreation to marketplaces. But this does not mean that all public spaces are “open spaces” – a library, a school or other public facility are also public spaces. Public space is the setting for a multitude of activities such as festivals, trade, the movement of goods and people, provision of infrastructure, or the setting for community life and livelihoods. Public spaces must be seen as multi-functional areas for meeting, economic exchange and cultural expression among a wide diversity of people and should be designed and managed to build peaceful and democratic societies and promoting cultural diversity.3 3 Public Spaces for All Designed to Live Together, 2015. 24 2-3 City morphology The Urban morphology is the studies that are related to the human settlements and their forms. It means that such studies focus on the urban areas’ layouts and their general physical forms. Urban morphology is the study of the physical form of a city, which consists of street patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, population density and patterns of residential, commercial, industrial and other uses, among other things. Special attention is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare with each other. Another significant part of this subfield deals with the study of the social forms which are expressed in the physical layout of a city and conversely, how physical form produces or reproduces various social forms. This approach challenges the common perception of unplanned environments as chaotic or vaguely organic through understanding the structures and processes embedded in urbanization.4 According to Kevin Lynch, the city has the following elements: 1- Paths. Paths are the channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally, or potentially moves. They may be streets. walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads. For many people, these are the predominant elements in their image. People observe the city while moving through it, and along these paths the other environmental elements are arranged and related. Figure 4: Karanfil Street in Ankara, 2013. 4 Morphology and Development of The Sizable Towns of Nainital Haldwani Region. 25 2- Edges. They are the linear elements not used or considered as paths by the observer. They are the boundaries between two phases, linear breaks in continuity: shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls. They are lateral references rather than coordinate axes. Such edges may be barriers, more or less penetrable, which close one region off from another; or they may be seams, lines along which two regions are related and joined together. These edge elements, although probably not as dominant as paths, are for many people important organizing features, particularly in the role of holding together generalized areas, as in the outline of a city by water or wall. Figure 5: Mogan Lake, an edge separating water and grass. 3- Districts. They are the medium-to-large sections of the city, conceived of as having two- dimensional extent, which the observer mentally enters "inside of." and which are recognizable as having some common, identifying character. Always identifiable from the inside, they are also used for exterior reference if visible from the outside. Most people structure their city to some extent in this way, with individual differences as to whether paths or districts are the dominant. It seems to depend not only upon the individual but also upon the given city. 26 Figure 6: Ulus in Ankara, a district with so much history and importance. 4- Nodes. Nodes are points. the strategic spots in a city into which an observer can enter. and which are the intensive foci to and from which he is traveling. They may be primarily junctions, places of a break in transportation, a crossing or convergence of paths, moments of shift from one structure to another. Or the nodes may be simply concentrations, which gain their importance from being the condensation of some use or physical character. as a street-comer hangout or an enclosed square. Some of these concentration nodes are the focus and epitome of a district, over which their influence radiates and of which they stand as a symbol. They may be called cores. Many nodes, of course, partake of the nature of both junctions and concentrations. The concept of node is related to the concept of path, since junctions are typically the convergence of paths. events on the journey. It is similarly related to the concept of district. since cores are typically the intensive foci of districts. their polarizing center. In any event, some nodal points are to be found in almost every image, and in certain cases they may be the dominant feature. 27 Figure 7: Kizilay Square in Ankara, a very strategic place in the city. 5- Landmarks. Landmarks are another type of point reference, but in this case the observer does not enter within them, they are external. They are usually a rather simply defined physical object: building, sign, store or mountain. Their use involves the singling out of one element from a host of possibilities. Some landmarks are distant ones. Typically, seen from many angles and distances, over the tops of smaller elements, and used as radial references. They may be within the city or at such a distance that for all practical purposes they symbolize a constant direction. Such are isolated towers, golden domes, and great hills. Even a mobile points like the sun whose motion is sufficiently slow and regular. Other landmarks are local, being visible only in restricted localities and from certain approaches. These are the innumerable signs, storefronts, trees, doorknobs, and other urban detail, which fill in the image of most observers. They are frequently used clues of identity and even of structure, and seem to be increasingly relied upon as a journey becomes more and more familiar. 28 Figure 8: Kocatepe Mosque in Ankara, a landmark that can be seen from different angles and locations These five elements shape and describe the city and give it its identity and form. 29 2-4 Urban public spaces 2-4-1 Definition Without including the aesthetic value to the definition criteria of “urban spaces”, any space between buildings in any urban area is defined as an urban public space. This space is clarified as a geometrically bounded area by a variety of elevations.5 Space in the urban areas is not what this research is made for. What this research focuses on is the concept of urban public spaces. Spaces that are totally made for the public to visit, to have a time in, to be served in, and to be fulfilling their needs in all the time. Public spaces are those spaces that are open and accessible to the public. Public spaces include streets, local public markets, parks, public squares and beaches. Public spaces are considered as “a vital ingredient of successful cities” and the places in a city that build a sense of community, culture, social capital, and community revitalisation.6 “What defines the character of a city is its public space, not its private space.” Says, Dr. Joan Clos, Executive Director, UN Habitat. Figure 9: The Russian Museum, a place that can be accessed by public. 5 Urban Space, Rob Krier, (1991). 6 UN-Habitat. Global Public Spaces Toolkit: From Global Principles to Local Policies and Practice. (2015). 30 2-4-2 Importance Public spaces create livable communities and facilitate the enjoyment of the higher- density neighborhoods typically found in cities. Public spaces play a key role in achieving safe, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable cities. Public space is crucial for the urban poor: Public space is often referred to as ’the poor man’s living room’ which hints at its particular importance for marginalized groups, but also its ability to foster integration between different socio-economic groups. Improving access to good public spaces for the most vulnerable urban residents is a powerful tool to improve equity, promote inclusion and combat discrimination. The use of public space by the poor is sometimes ignored, although public space is ‘the poor man’s living room’ and important for recreation, social, cultural and economic development of vulnerable groups. Inadequate housing should be compensated by generous provisions of good quality multi-functional public space. Investments in streets and public space infrastructure improve urban productivity, livelihoods and allow better access to markets, jobs and public services, especially where over half of the urban workforce is informal. In particular, public spaces where informal business can be carried out provide poorer urban dwellers with precious livelihood opportunities. Multi-functional and shared public space is important, for example street vendors often share public space with other users, such as cars and pedestrians. Public space contributes to building social cohesion: Public space provides room for social and cultural interaction and can foster a sense of belonging and pride in an area. A public space that is open to all, regardless of ethnic origin, age or gender, provides a democratic forum for citizens and society. Public space can bring communities together, provide meeting places and foster social ties. These spaces shape the cultural identity of an area, are part of its unique character and provide a sense of place for local communities. Public space promotes gender equality: The mainstreaming of gender equality into urban planning, development and design is essential if we are to create public space where men and women, boys and girls have equal opportunities to be happy, healthy, secure as well as economically and politically empowered. 31 A gender-sensitive and gender-equal public space proactively considers in its design the safety and comfort of all community members, and fosters interaction between people of all genders. Gender-sensitive public space by their design enhance women’s safety and feelings of security, through lighting, or access to public transportation. Other important areas of consideration involves landscaping, visibility, signage, and proximity to other public spaces. Pervasive gender-based street harassment is one of the most significant barriers preventing equitable access and enjoyment of public spaces today. Although violence in the private domain is now widely recognized as a human rights violation, sexual harassment in public spaces remains a challenge globally. We all have a role to play in changing this. Men can speak out against gender discrimination and violence where they see it, challenging their peers and their community to treat others with respect in public spaces. Public space enhances safety: Where public space is inadequate, poorly designed, or privatized, the city becomes increasingly segregated. The result can be a polarized city where social tensions are likely to flare up and where crime and violence rises. A mixed and diverse public space (use, users, design, state, time, etc.) provides a place that is vibrant and busy automatically reducing insecurity. Fear of crime and crime itself, can deter people, not just vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly, from using public spaces. In addition, women often face particular concerns, and due to fear of crime and violence are often restricted from using some public space in some areas. Well-designed and well- maintained streets and public spaces can help to reduce these fears and contribute to improving mutual trust and safety. Public space supports economic development: A good connective matrix of public space has impact on economic productivity as it improves the efficiency of the supply chain, reducing production costs and promoting the mobility of goods and people. Public space provides important benefits to all forms of business, both formal and informal. As cities increasingly compete with one another to attract investment, good streets, market places, parks, squares, gardens and other public facilities becomes a vital business and marketing tool. In addition, good public spaces can increase the land values of the adjacent properties. Entrepreneurs, large or small, are attracted to locations that offer well-designed, well-managed public places and these in turn attract customers, employees and services. Public space improves public health: 32 Good-quality, well-maintained network of public spaces can help to improve our physical and mental health by encouraging physical activity and play, making walking more attractive, reducing stress and providing a calming environment. Public space increases transportation efficiency: One of the fundamental functions of public space is that it allows us to move around and to access our homes, work, schools and other amenities – on foot, by bicycle, by car, motorbike or public transport. Well-designed connective matrix of streets and public spaces encourages walking and cycling, and has the power to create a safe environment by reducing vehicle speeds and use. Public space improves the environment: Many cities are developing policies that promote compact, livable areas, with adequate public space that facilitate public transport, encourages walking and cycling, thereby reducing carbon emissions. Public space is critical for environmental sustainability. Green and open public space brings many important environmental benefits such as, the cooling of air and the absorption of atmospheric pollutants. The significant increase in hard surfacing and the reduction in green spaces lead to higher temperatures in towns and cities. Vegetation in the public space can help to redress this imbalance. Given the importance of public spaces, it is worrying that provision of public space is limited in many cities, that access to public space is becoming more and more controlled and that often cities lack comprehensive knowledge of the public space they have and management mechanisms to enhance its quality, access and benefits. In addition, tools for creating and protecting public spaces are not widely applied and accessible to cities across the world, and in particular in developing countries. An enormous local asset is undervalued and underutilized. Creating safe, inclusive and accessible public spaces for all through public action, participation and partnerships: Public space creation, protection, management and enjoyment require capable local authorities and collaboration with inhabitants and other actors. Public Space requires cities and local governments to take a trans-disciplinary approach by working in partnership with a range of stakeholders and organizations, which should include civil society, academia and the private sector to ensure inclusive, safe and accessible public spaces for all. Working on public space is the ideal opportunity for the involvement of all inhabitants. Public space allows people to become engaged and to feel part of the city. This implies to 33 respect and protect a number of rights and freedoms, such as the right to freedom of expression and assembly, the right to information, consultation and participation in decision-making processes. A good city should foster social cohesion and build social capital, engaging the community in design, management and maintenance of safe public spaces. The creation of public space requires adequate legal frameworks and the relations between private and public interests to be well understood and managed. Opportunities to expand the public space provision can be sized during redevelopment and it is important to plan public space in advance of development wherever possible. Figure 10: Promenada, Novi Sad, Serbia, 2014. 34 2-4-3 Types Spaces in the very general way are categorized into two main types: natural spaces and man-made spaces.7 Natural spaces are the ones that humans had nothing to do with constructing them. Valleys, rivers, beaches, and mountains are considered to be natural spaces. The man- made spaces are the ones that were constructed by the human kind such as parks, museums, restaurants, hospitals, etc. Man-made spaces are classified into 3 main types, which are: 1- External public spaces. 1-1 Paths; 1-2 Public parks; 1-3 Green areas; 1-4 Playgrounds; 1-5 Cemeteries; 1-6 Squares. Such spaces and places form the shape of the city the most, since they provide unique functions and activities. They are formed from the variation of heights around them. Most of the external public spaces have grass, meaning they are mostly used for recreational purposed or agricultural ones. 2- Interior public spaces. 2-1 Schools. 2-2 Public buildings (governmental, cultural, health, etc.). Such spaces and places work the same way as the exterior public spaces with a slight difference. That difference is a roof and walls. These spaces are closed and have walls. Such spaces are mainly unique buildings. Buildings that have functions for the whole society citizens. 3- Semi-public interior and exterior spaces. 3-1 Archaeological sites. 3-2 Shopping centers. 3-3 Parking spots and lots. 7 Twenty Two Magazine, 58th print edition, 2018. 35 3-4 Resorts. Such spaces and places are not fully public neither fully private. The society as a whole have an access to these spaces but with specific conditions. You either have to pay to access or use, or visit at certain allowed times. Figure 11: Jericho Resort Village. 36 2-4-4 Historical background8 Urban open spaces have been critical sites of cultural, political, and economic life from early civilizations to the present day. Public spaces make cities. They are the spaces of visibility and sociability, the areas where the invisible boundaries that separate us socio-economically are temporarily contested. The availability of quality public space is one of the varied characteristics that define the city. Citizens recognize themselves as members of a community only when they can equally access and use the public “place”, which also presents the result of evolution and growing up of the urban fabric. It's safe to say that the Greeks are the ones who started the concept of public spaces. They had the “Agora”. This is an open space where people meet. Figure 12: Reconstruction of the Ancient Greek Agora in Athens. The Agora was the central spot in ancient Greek states, the focal point of the political, economic, and social life in the Greek polis. Its literal meaning is “gathering place” or “assembly”. It is where the idea of Western democracy was born, the arena of political deliberation and participation which are the fundamentals of democratic governance. At first, the Agora was surrounded by private houses being the extension of the home. Later, temples and sanctuaries were build bordering it with stoas, covered walkways, and porticoes. 8 https://www.arch2o.com/happened-public-space-quick-guide-europes-history/ 37 The Roman Form is just another historical name for public spaces. It is the parallel of the Greek Agora and probably influenced by it, as there is no trace of a similar public space in the earlier Etruscan cities. Forums usually have a geometric, basically rectangular shape, in a proportion of 2 to 3, surrounded by porticoes. They blended both religious and civic activities as they housed temples, basilicas, shops and markets. It was also common to find a theatre and a public bath, as well as the curia (used for city council meetings) and (political meeting). In later stages the Forums became more defined and enclosed, forming a series of separate spaces. Figure 13: Reconstruction of the Roman Forum. https://www.arch2o.com/indus-business-district-joseph-mwaisaka/ https://www.arch2o.com/indus-business-district-joseph-mwaisaka/ 38 The Medieval Market Square: The medieval city was a place of trade. One or more marketplaces were devoted to trading, as the main public spaces of the city. The cathedral was the main institution of the growing city of the Middle Ages, and the marketplace could often be found in an adjacent space, to take advantage of the constant activity. However, this is a time when the tension between public and private space started to emerge. Cities were walled for protection against invaders and the availability of space within the walls was limited, so there was a continuous pressure for claiming space for private use. Figure 14: The Middle Ages Marketplace. 39 The Renaissance Plaza: The Renaissance and the Baroque square were carefully planned, formally and symmetrically designed. The importance of proportion and harmony was visible in the uniform facades of the buildings surrounding these squares. This is when a new designing tradition begins: residential quarters around squares – primarily for the upper class – forming a semi-public character. Apparently, this ability to restrict public access to the use of these squares made them more popular among developers of new residential districts. Figure 15: The San Marco Square in Venice, Italy. The Public Space in Modernism: The era of the modernism is stigmatized with the motto: “Form Follows Function”. The functionalism of modernists, therefore, gave priority to cars and fast movement urban space, a notion that undermined the close relationship between open spaces and the building surrounding them. The city and its public space were designed as an organized system, where development ensued according to functionalist rules. Despite their emphasis on the primary of public interests in the city, the modernists paid little attention to the historically created public spaces. The new vision of the city was expanded open spaces where high buildings were erected, but with no other connection to the rest of the city. A “lost space” where sociability was impossible. 40 Figure 16: Le Corbusier’s Plan Voisin for Paris Public Space and Social Activism: During times of political instability, the public space is charged as a vortex of social discontent. In the 1960’s social and political turmoils were frequently played out in public spaces, which were decorated with the language of protest (banners, murals, graffiti). Protestors frequently appropriated public spaces, and sometimes private ones, to voice their dissent. The notion that citizens can and should take control of open spaces was very vivid in these times, establishing the “right to the city” movement. Figure 17: Students protesting in Paris, May ’68. 41 Contemporary Public Spaces: Public spaces in contemporary cities are under the pressure of capital and privatization. This is gradually transforming their social and physical form, leading to a significant reduction of the public realm and the loss of public space. Green parks, open-air squares, and riverside paths become victims of private ownership. A place of a hybrid character starts to emerge. It’s a place where there’s no clear distinction between public and private, a “grey area”. These non-places don’t bear any symbolic expression, they are devoid of identity and usually places of consumption, such as coffee shops and shopping malls. Figure 18: The Grand Central Shopping Mall in Birmingham. The proper shaping of an urban public space reflects the proper functioning of a democratic governance. After so many transformations over the centuries, we are now at a point where we need to deal with these leftovers of public space. They are the key focus in the transformation of the cities. The success of a particular public space is not solely in the hands of the architect, urban designer or town planner; it relies also on people adopting, using and managing the space – people make places, more than places make people. 42 2-4-5 Characteristics of good urban public spaces History tells us that a good city evolves on the basis of local characteristics and design principles and not by mere chance. History also tells us that good urban structures and forms enable and enhance urban activities, and improve on the well-being of the citizens. A good city is created by the balanced relationship between the local and global environment. A good city image is preserved and therefore long lasting because it functions well and expresses the history, the citizens’ collective memory, values, beliefs, and pride. All the good urban public spaces in the world fall into certain characteristics that make them good, these characteristics are9: Vitality: A vital urban public space is the one that fulfils the biological needs of the inhabitants and provides a safe environment. Sense: In a sensible urban public space, the residents can perceive and understand the place’s form and function. Fit: An urban public space with a good fit provides residents what they need to pursue their projects successfully. Access: An accessible urban public space allows people of all ages and backgrounds to gain the activities, resources, services, and information that they need. Control: An urban public space with a good control is arranged so that the users have a say in the management of it. Efficiency: An efficient urban public space achieves all the goals listed at least cost, and balances the achievement of the goals with one another. Justice: A just urban public space distributes the benefits among its users according to some fair standard. 9 Lynch, Kevin, 1981 43 2-4-6 Aesthetic needs in the public realm Aesthetic appreciation of the urban environment is primarily visual and kinaesthetic (i.e. involving awareness of movement of all parts of the body). Experiencing urban environments nevertheless involves all our senses and, in some situations, hearing, smelling and tactility can be more important than vision. Visual appreciation of urban environments is also a product of perception and cognition - that is, what stimuli we perceive, how we perceive them, how we process, interpret and judge the information gathered, and how it appeals to our mind and emotions. It is important to recognize that the general public's liking for particular environments is much broader than aesthetic criteria. Jack Nasar (1998) identified five attributes of 'liked' environments. Disliked environments tended to have the opposites of these. In each case, it was the observer's perception of the attribute that was important. The attributes translate into a series of much generalized preferences: 1- Naturalness: environments that are natural or where there is a predominance of natural over built elements. 2- Upkeep/civilities: environments that appear to be looked after and cared for. 3- Openness and defined space: the blending of defined open space with panoramas and vistas of pleasant elements. 4- Historical significance/content: environments that provoke favorable associations. 5- Order: in terms of organization, coherence, congruity, legibility, and clarity. In terms patterns and aesthetic order, our intuitive capacity for aesthetic appreciation has four distinct components that transcend time and culture10: 1- Sense of rhyme and pattern: Rhyme involves some similarity in the elements, and presupposes the simultaneous existence of complexity (i.e. a mass of visual detail and information) and patterns. Over time, as the mind 'organizes' and makes sense of the information, the patterns become more dominant, in subtle ways rather than simple repetition (as in wallpaper), these rhyme patterns comprise a system in which there is 'substantial affinity' rather than 'point to-point correspondence'. 10 Smith (1980, p. 74) 44 Figure 19: Colonnades provide rhyme and pattern, contributing to character and identity, in Central Bologna 2- Appreciation of rhythm: Differing from rhyme, rhythm relies for its impact on a stricter repetition. Visual pleasure, for example, derives from rhythmic elements varying from the simple binary kind to more complex repeated subsystems. Rhythm is produced by the grouping of elements to create emphasis, interval, accent and/or direction, etc. To avoid monotony, contrast and variety are essential in achieving interesting rhythms. 45 Figure 20: Façade rhythms in San Marco’s Piazza, Venice, Italy. 3- Recognition of balance: While we can generally conceive visual 'balance', it is difficult to define precisely. Balance is a form of order generally related to 'harmony' among the parts of a visual scene or environment. It can also be recognized in scenes that are complex and seemingly chaotic - in some cases, it is rarely immediately obvious and may only become apparent over time. It’s suggested that a major attraction of historic towns is the discovery of views where everything suddenly seems to cohere into perfect balance - an important aspect of this is the surprise element. Although symmetry can be a powerful tool in achieving balance, symmetrical compositions can appear mechanical and leaden. Asymmetrical compositions may also use elements of symmetry to achieve visual balance but in more complex and potentially interesting ways. Balance can also be perceived in highly complex organizations of colors, textures, and shapes, which cohere into a state of balance. Different types of balance also exist: in Georgian neo-classical townscapes, for example, there is usually a 'static' form, where all elements contribute and are subservient to the greater whole. In Victorian neo-Gothic townscapes, the elements often compete, giving a more 'dynamic' balance. 46 4- Sensitivity to harmonic relationships: Harmony concerns the relationships between different parts, and how they fit together to form a coherent whole. Certain relationships, such as those of the Golden Section, also contribute to the quality of harmony. Gifted designers often manipulate proportions to achieve more harmonious results. Perspective effects, for example, may be used to suggest that building elements are taller, slenderer, or more elegant than they actually are, while deliberate strategies of distraction may concentrate attention on some aspects of the design rather than others. 47 2-4-7 Activities and needs The choices made in any particular setting depend partly on each individual's own situation and characteristics (their ego, personality, goals and values, available resources, past experiences, life stage, etc.): in an analogy with computer science, these characteristics are 'hard wired'. Despite the seemingly individualistic and complex demands of human values, goals and aspirations, the existence of an overarching hierarchy of human needs has been proposed by several authors. Such hierarchies often follow the original work on human motivation by Maslow (1968), who identified a five-stage hierarchy of basic human needs:11 1- Physiological needs: for warmth and comfort; 2- Safety and security needs: to feel safe from harm; 3- Affiliation needs: to belong - to a community, for example; 4- Esteem needs: to feel valued by others; 5- Self-actualization needs: for artistic expression and fulfilment. The most basic physiological needs must be satisfied before progress can be made to the higher order ones; for example, self-actualization: However, although there is a hierarchy, the different needs are related in a complex series of interlinked relationships. 11 Public Places Urban Spaces, Carmona and Heath, 2003 48 2-4-8 Positive and negative space Outdoor space can be considered in terms of 'positive' and 'negative' spaces: • Positive, relatively enclosed, outdoor space has a definite and distinctive shape. It is 'conceivable', can be measured, and has definite boundaries. - We could imagine it being filled with water, which subsequently runs out relatively slowly. It is discontinuous (in principle), closed, static, but serial in composition. Its shape is as important as that of the buildings surrounding it. • Negative space is shapeless, e.g. the amorphous residue left over around buildings which are generally viewed as positive. It is 'inconceivable' - Continuous and lacking in perceivable edges or form. It is difficult to imagine such space being filled with water because it is difficult to conceive of the space. Figure 21: A house representing the positive space and the white color in the background representing the negative space. 49 2-5 Urban design of public spaces 2-5-1 Definition Urban design describes the physical features that define the character or image of a street, neighborhood, community, or the City as a whole. Urban design is the visual and sensory relationship between people and the built and natural environment. The built environment includes buildings and streets, and the natural environment includes features such as shorelines, canyons, mesas, and parks as they shape and are incorporated into the urban framework. Citywide urban design recommendations are necessary to ensure that the built environment continues to contribute to the qualities that distinguish a city as a unique living environment.12 12 www.sandiego.gov 50 2-5-2 Strategies There are several urban design principles relating to the existing City form and achieving a compact and environmentally sensitive pattern of development envisioned in the modern cities strategy/strategies. These principles are identified below to provide a framework for the goals of the Urban Design Element: • Contribute to the qualities that distinguish the modern city as a unique living environment; •Build upon existing communities in the modern city; • Direct growth into commercial areas where a high level of activity already exists; and • Preserve stable residential neighborhoods. The Urban Design Element further implements the “core values” related to urban form that were adopted as a part of the Strategic Framework Element in the most of the modern urban cities. The core values related to urban form include: • The natural environment; • The City’s extraordinary setting, defined by its open spaces, natural habitat and unique topography; • A compact, efficient, and environmentally sensitive pattern of development; and • The physical, social, and cultural diversity of our City and its neighborhoods. The Urban Design Element addresses urban form and design through policies aimed at respecting our natural environment, preserving open space systems and targeting new growth into compact villages. Urban form and how it functions becomes increasingly important as changes in density and intensity occur over time, as any modern city evolves. The urban design principles established in this element are intended to help achieve an identity for such a city as a whole while encompassing its physical, social and cultural diversity. A higher overall quality of urban design is another fundamental goal. Urban design applies at multiple levels from citywide to community to neighborhood and ultimately to individual projects. Urban design is a process to foster quality in the built and natural environment as the City changes. 51 Urban Design Element policies help support and implement land use and transportation decisions, encourage economic revitalization, and improve the quality of life in modern cities. 52 2-5-3 Goals ♦ A built environment that respects San Diego’s natural environment and climate. ♦ An improved quality of life through safe and secure neighborhoods and public places. ♦ A pattern and scale of development that provides visual diversity, choice of lifestyle, opportunities for social interaction, and that respects desirable community character and context. ♦ A City with distinctive districts, communities, neighborhoods, and village centers where people gather and interact. ♦ Maintenance of historic resources that serve as landmarks and contribute to the City’s identity. ♦ Utilization of landscape as an important aesthetic and unifying element throughout the City. 53 2-5-4 Urban design in the context of urban planning “Urban design is an arrangement tool which brings about standards regulating the development13. In this context, it is an important discipline for the preparation of projects and guides which aim to lead urban planning and to establish systems of urban open spaces. We expect urban design interventions that will be realized in urban spaces to reflect the policies, strategies, and projects of urban planning. The changes experienced in modern cities are reflected in the urban space and this leads to a gradual extinction of public spaces in the urban structure. Increasing urbanization and migration result in a loss of integrity in terms of public open spaces in town centers. Public spaces need to be considered with an integral approach in the scope of urban planning and urban design, and a system of public spaces need to be formed. Since the beginning of the 20th century, prominent squares with architectural value, parks, open spaces with many functions, urban spaces to which city dwellers can easily access and wherein urban furniture was densely employed have been formed. With post-modernism more importance was attached to comprehensive preservation and innovation, bringing into agenda both the traditional understanding of city and integrated urban life. Urban plans with a social dimension defended a shared contribution from designers, performers, and the users. “In the formation of open space systems in the urban space, modeling the urban infrastructure and land use are important subjects of urban design”14. There exists individual infrastructural problems about transportation, energy, distribution of drinking water, disposal of waste water, communication, etc. which need to be solved in context of urban design work, and in context of locating of urban furniture. Solutions towards these problems need to be carried out in integrity with each other. For instance, lighting fixtures, which are a part of urban furniture, are dependent on the infrastructure and in case of their replacement, repair, and maintenance they must be related with other urban planning institutions. A fragmentary approach and the disconnectedness between the different institutions that deal with separate issues both harm the integrity of urban planning and spoil urban identity. 13 Çubuk, 1999:96 14 Çubuk, 1999:95 54 CHAPTER 3 CASE STUDIES 3-1 Urban public spaces as a way to regenerate the city of Dalian Urban regeneration has been accompanying urban development since the earliest human settlement, and was emphasized after the World War Two. Several decades’ experience and billions of dollars forced the decision makers to realize the importance of urban image, quality of life, and urban environment, which were recognized as prerequisites and catalysts for the economic development of cities. In this circumstance squares have been involved in urban regeneration projects to create symbol of the city and to provide space for residents, and have been proved to be effective for urban regeneration by many western countries. Dalian, a coastal city in Northeast China presented to be a successful case in the country in involving the construction of squares in regenerating central city to transform the city from a heavy industrial city to a garden city. In the circumstance of urban beautification movement in China, which began in 1990s and was partly symbolized by the construction of fancy, large, but under-used squares, a study on the success of Dalian is indeed needed. This study shed light on the major concerns of Dalian government to create squares in central city, the land use issues of squares, the usage on the squares, and the perception of squares by users. Through the application of key-informant interview, questionnaire survey, and onsite observation, the paper concluded that the construction of squares was part of the urban regeneration policies in Dalian, the major concern was to provide local residents with public open space to enjoy public life, and to improve urban environment. The construction of squares was carefully and systematically planned, the location of squares was pertinent to the land use pattern nearby and to the function of each of the three districts in central city, the squares are fully utilized, and are appreciated by both local residents and tourists. The squares were considered as catalyst in urban environment improvement, urban image enhancement, and tourism and economic development from the perspective of government officials, local residents, and tourists. Implication was provided for other cities in China based on the major findings and reviewed literature, future research opportunities were also suggested. 55 3-2 Spatial distribution of public parks and their planning system in Nablus City In 2017, a researcher named Raed Herzallah made Nablus a city of concern and focus for his master’s degree thesis. Raed analyzed the city and its recreational, public, existing and proposed parks. The study/research was aligned with the existing master plan of the city. Raed focused on the way the concept of parks in the city has evaluated over time. He made a conclusion that can be summed up in four solid points, which are: 1- Public parks distribution in the city of Nablus was randomly made and never took the urban planning aspect in mind. 2- Some areas in the city has more parks than the others, meaning that the recreational and natural parks density can be seen as “unfair” and “heavy” in places and very light in others within the focus of Nablus. 3- Most of the planned places and areas for parks are hard in terms of topography. 4- The existence of big areas of trees on the mountains and hills of the city. 5- There are no standards for distributing the public parks. Site selection is minimum when deciding which lands are suitable for a park construction. 6- Not taking stakeholders into account when making decisions related to the public parks, making it a one-man decision instead of many. Raed discussed the existing condition of the public parks in the city and noticed the following: 1- The distribution of public parks is not relevant to the public realm and its needs. Neither is to the population in general. 2- Green areas are randomly distributed. 3- The distribution and placement of public parks was made in terms of neighborhoods, not the city at all. Meaning that the scale was small, not big. 4- Financial aspects of the city were never considered. Monitoring the distribution of parks was not fully studied and analyzed. 56 5- The absence of green areas and public parks in many neighborhoods in the city, which makes point 3 more valid. 6- Some public parks were left in the process of construction. Meaning that some projects were never finished and still are. This is a side-effect of not considering the financial aspects in such big projects. As a final notice, Raed made a conclusion on why the public parks and spaces are being ignored in the city of Nablus: 1- The municipality of Nablus doesn’t take the public parks a as major deal in its policies and future plans. 2- Municipality planners do not include these parks in their long term plans to promote and improve the city conditions in terms of global values and standards. 3- The lack of general culture of protecting the public realm within Nablus citizens. 4- Choosing hard slope places and areas to construct such parks make the process incomplete and inefficient. 5- The high-priced lands in the city make the municipality’s ownership of such lands harder. The municipality do not own enough public lands to apply and construct such public parks on and upon. Raed had the neighborhood scale as a major scale for his study. Nablus City is subdivided into 6 main areas. There are 42 neighborhoods in total. Raed calculated each area for each neighborhoods and related this to the needs each one of these neighborhoods should have. 57 CHAPTER 4 GETTING TO KNOW THE STUDY AREA 4-1 The name, the story In Arabic the meaning of the name Jericho is: City of the moon. In the bible Jericho was a Canaan city destroyed when its walls fell down. Figure 22: Jericho City walls. Jericho is, as historically proven, the oldest city in the world. It’s the first city to be built from scratch. It’s the first urbanized place that ever took place on this earth. 58 4-2 Spatial aspect Jericho is a border city, an edge city that is mainly isolated from other Palestinian cities. Figure 23: Jericho’s location in relevance to Jericho governance and to the West Bank. Jericho is located in the far east of the historical Palestine. It’s the only exit for the Palestinians who live in the West Bank. Jericho City has an area of 58.7 km², making it 10% of the Greater Jericho (Jericho governance) and 1% only of the West Bank. Greater Jericho has an area of 534 km², making it one of the biggest governances in the West Bank. 59 4-3 Historical aspect 4-3-1 Historical brief Jericho started as a popular camping ground for the hunter-gathers of the Natufian culture dating to 10000 BCE. It wasn’t until the cold and drought caused by the last Ice Age, or Younger Dryas, came to an end around 9600 BCE that year-round habitation and permanent settlements began in the area. Tell es-Sultan (Sultan’s Hill), 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) north of modern-day Jericho, became the earliest permanent settlement. It was a Pre-Pottery Neolithic (New Stone Age) settlement. It is situated on the Ein as-Sultan spring (later called Elisha’s Spring) supplying it with water. By about 9400 BCE the settlement grew to include more than 70 homes. These circular dwellings measured 5 meters (16 feet) in diameter and were built with clay and straw.15 The following diagram may best summarize Jericho’s history: Figure 24: Jericho’s history and administrative status. 15 ancient.eu 60 4-3-2 Historical and cultural sites Jericho is one of the finest tourism based cities in the region. In fact, it’s the best attractive city in terms of annual visits. It globally welcomes half a million tourists per year. It also welcomes the same number from Palestinians.16 Here’s a map that shows the historical and cultural tourism sites in the city: The city, as it seems from the map, has many important sites that are historically and culturally significant. 16 Alwatan Voice, 2014. 61 The following figure/photo shows the landscape of the city over the centuries: Figure 25: The City of Jericho in different time intervals. The city clearly had a big shift from the early 1900’s to the half of that century. Nevertheless, Jericho is always that semi-rural city that relatively develops slower than the rest of the Palestinian cities. 62 4-4 Natural features 4-4-1 Topography Jericho is not only the oldest city in the world, but also the lowest in terms of topography, this map can tell best: The blue line represents the city limits. It’s clear that the heights in the city start from -385 and reach to a peak of -95. A difference in heights that’s astonishing and surprising for a city with such small area. The surrounding areas are higher than the city itself. It’s easy to notice that the more you go west, the higher the topography is. Still, Jericho is truly the best city in the west bank to have easy topographic features. Walking in and within the city will give you a vibe of a straight line city. There are no slopes in the city as in other ones (i.e. Nablus and Ramallah). 63 4-4-2 Water bodies Being the lowest spot on earth brings to Jericho an enough amount of underground water. Making it one of the among the top Self-sufficiency cities in the region. Here’s a map that shows the water bodies in the city: Alqult valley and Ain Alsultan spring are the dominant features of Jericho’s water bodies. They both work as a major attraction for tourists and nature tours travelers. Ain Alsultan brings enough water for the residents of the City and its two camps (Aqba Aljaber camp, and Ain Alsultan camp). 64 4-4-3 Agricultural land value One more popular aspect of Jericho’s features is its agriculture. The city is well known for planting banana, Citrus fruits and palm fields. Here’s a map that shows the agricultural value of the city lands and its surrounding: Oddly enough, the city has 59% of low valued agricultural lands. The rest is moderate and high valued agricultural lands. The part where the city is low in terms of agricultural values, an urbanism is held. It’s a natural relationship between the built-up and the natural area. The city, somehow, managed to balance between both sides. It’s also noticeable that the eastern part of the city is richer with high and moderate agricultural values, unlike the western part of it which only contains a big area of low – valued lands and a small area of high and moderate lands. 65 4-4-4 Other existing natural features Jericho’s biodiversity lands are a few. They are natural reserves and are prohibited to expand near/into. Jericho’s range of slope is gentle and mainly ranges from 0% to almost 5%. Which is a great indicator of the wellness of this great city. Jericho’s average rainfall is ranged between 100 mm3 and 200 mm3. Which is a little amount of rainfalls compared to cities like Ramallah, Jerusalem and Nablus. The following map sums up the rest of the natural features of the city: 66 4-5 Demographic features 4-5-1 Population types In terms of population types, the city has some interesting cases. The following figure shows the different types of population: Figure 26: Population according to gender, age and origin. Jericho City has a typical gender distribution in it. Having 50% of each gender. Jericho City has a huge and dominant adult sector (58%) and a 39% of underage sector who needs to be taken care of. The %3 left is the elderly sector whom as will needs to be cared for and about. Meanwhile, the originals17 and refugees case is quite different. The refugees are as dominant as the originals in the city of Jericho. A simple explanation for this case is understanding Jericho’s value for the Palestinians who suffered from the 1948 and 1967 crises. Such an edge city is either the final destiny for the escaping Palestinians or the 17 Although, the word “originals” isn’t the most suitable word to use but still, works in this context 67 alternative destination for those who prefer to stay in Palestine rather than go to other places, like Jordan. 68 4-5-2 Annual population growth In 1912, Jericho was just a small place with only 300 inhabitants. Ever since, it started growing in a slow rate. The city was not desired as it’s today. Since An Nakba happened in 1948, things have changed for the city. New comers dominated the place. The city became the final destination for many Palestinians. It was the safest place any Palestinian can ask for in these dark days. From 1948 to 1967, the city was increasing drastically. Its population growth calmed down after that and grew naturally since then. As of 2018, the city has almost 25,000 citizens. Here’s a figure of Jericho City annual growth through the years: Figure 27: Annual population growth of Jericho City. 69 4-5-3 Population pyramid Here’s a figure that shows the annual population growth according to gender: Figure 28: The population pyramid of Jericho City. This figure shows a slight difference between the male and female genders growth. The female population annual growth clearly shows a bigger numbers than the males’ one. Yet, the difference is not big. 70 4-6 Housing, utility and landuse 4-6-1 Buildings expansion Jericho and Gaza were the first cities to be officially registered and declared as Palestinian cities in 1993/1994. They were and still are politically important. This made Jericho City a place to expand for Palestinians (the originals, the refugees and the returners with the PNA18). In 1997, Jericho had almost 3000 houses and buildings. In 2016 Jericho has over 7200 buildings. The number multiplied but the area is still the same which arises the concern of the future of this city up to the top. The following maps will show the buildings expansion through the years of 1997-2016: 18 The Palestinian National Authority. 71 72 73 74 4-6-2 Buildings growth The previous maps showed am expansion of buildings over the years, and even stated the numbers of buildings of each year. This figure completes the previously mentioned maps and makes a percentage calculation of each studied year: Figure 29: Buildings growth over time in the city of Jericho. It’s clear to say that 2016 was a crowded year of constructions. 22% of the buildings in the city were constructed in that year. It’s also clear to say that the more years to come, the more buildings to be built and constructed. This makes it harder for a city like Jericho to handle the process. The urban expansion of the city is not planned. It’s random. The city has a master plan that dates to 2013 but natural areas are being eaten by the expansion. That’s something the masterplan didn’t wish and ask for. 75 4-6-3 Roads spreading Buildings that expanded in the previous sections needed/need roads to be served by. Roads in Jericho were unpaved in the mid. of 20th century but things have changed ever since. The city prospered and so did its roads and streets. Here’s a map that shows the roads of 1997 and their progress and spreading until 2016: The new roads are oriented to follow a grid system, meanwhile the 1997 roads where made to fit into a radial system of road-network. New housing projects and reparcelations were made during this interval of time. These projects depends on the grid system. This explains the grid system that emerged as a minor road-network system in the past few years. It’s an interesting spreading to view when realizing that the new streets are far away from the center. They are in the edges of the urban expansion. The inner part of Jericho is already filled with streets and buildings. 76 4-6-4 Figure ground Buildings of Jericho city are fairly distributed within the masterplan. The following maps shows the figure ground of Jericho, where buildings and streets are blacked out, while what's left is the open space: 77 4-6-5 Streets hierarchy As important as it is, Jericho has two regional street to surround and connect it with other parts of the West Bank. One Regional street (spotted on the east of Jericho) to connect it with the North West Bank, and another one to connect it with Jerusalem and South and Center of West Bank. The city, on the other hand, is rich with main streets. These streets are the main support for the radial system that the city took as an approach in the 50’s. The local street are mostly aligned to support the radial road-network. Almost all the lands in the city are served by at least one street. That’s a good indicator of civil service for the residents. Here’s a map that summarizes the hierarchy of streets in Jericho City: 78 4-6-6 Buildings use Here’s a map that shows the building use of Jericho City buildings: The public buildings are schools, municipal related facilities, and other governmental buildings. They are fairly distributed within the limits of the city. There’s a military base for the PNA in the Far East edge of the built-up area of the city. 79 4-6-7 The 1988 masterplan Just 7 years from the rule of the PNA, Jericho had a new proposed masterplan in 1988. The masterplan was approved and applied. From the map above, it’s noticeable that the residential use is the main core of this masterplan. This masterplan included Ain Alsultan camp for the first time. It stated an industrial area in the far South of it. There were green areas in the plan, yet they were left unused. 80 4-6-8 The current masterplan During 2011-2013, Jericho’s municipality generated a new masterplan following then needs of its community and putting the archeological and natural sites ahead to be protected. The following map shows the masterplan components and its uses: The city now has one existing plan and another one that’s proposed and under construction (the New Jericho/ Moon City Plan), it’s located in the far South of Jericho’s limits. The current masterplan can be described as “good but not the best”. It fulfills the needs but not all of them. It totally ignored the public recreational realm. There are no urban public spaces in the city. The masterplan failed at fixing such issue. 81 4-6-9 Urban public spaces Space in general can be categorized into two main sectors19: 1- Natural space. 2- Manmade urban space. The following figure shows the subcategories of spaces: Natural space is the space that humans never fixed, changed and had nothing to do with making it. Such space can be any natural feature in space. Valleys/wadies, mountains, hills, rivers, lakes, etc. Jericho city has only valleys as its natural spaces. Jericho city natural space can be shown in this map: 19 Twenty Two magazine, #59. 82 Meanwhile, Jericho city’s manmade external urban spaces are the following: The city paths are what connects the whole other spaces together. The public parks in the city are a few. The city has one main square and it’s full all the time due to the lack of public places. 83 On the other hand, Jericho has a good amount of manmade interior urban spaces. Ranging from schools to governmental facilities. Any space that can be entered and accessed freely and had a roof was taken into account. The following maps shows a range of interior public spaces within the limits of the City of Jericho: 84 The city of Jericho has a big number of semi-public interior and exterior spaces as well: Such places are not free to access by the public all the time. Some of them are limited by time, or limited by financial costs. Meaning that accessing such places is not allowed at certain hours of the day, or accessing them requires a “pay to use” policy. For example, there are no free legal parking spots in the city. You have to “pay to park” or you have to park somewhere that’s illegal. One more example, archeological sites in the city are not free to access all the time. There are certain hours where/when you can do that. Such hours are mainly from 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. There’s a lack of parking spots, a lack of tourism-based facilities (i.e. a hospitality place) to handle the tourist. A bigger tourism information center than the one existing in the middle of the square. 85 4-7 Political and administrative status 4-7-1 Historical administrative status Jericho hasn’t always been a “city” or a “governorate”. Jericho had a transformation in its administrative title and status over the years. The following figure briefly describes the status of Jericho through the years: Figure 30: Administrative status of Jericho. 86 4-7-2 Political conditions Jericho is the first city to be declared as a Palestinian land in the 90’s. It’s a big deal in terms of modern politics in Palestine. Jericho is one of the fewest cities in the West Bank to be an almost fully “A area”. Meaning that it is administrated by the PNA without any sort of interventions from the Israeli occupation. The following map shows the distribution of A and C lands in the City of Jericho and its surroundings of occupation colonies: It’s fair to say that Jericho is a political-tension free city. It’s probably the safest city in the whole region. Even the Israeli occupation colonies that surround it are a few. 87 CHAPTER 5 PROJECT JUSTIFICATION AND CITY ANALYSIS 5-1 Project justification Project justifications can be listed as follows: The tourism infrastructure isn’t at its finest There’re no enough tourism facilities. The city has limited public spaces and its CBD isn’t that accessible. People suffer to walk through the CBD. Travellers don’t get through the city when travelling to Jordan. There’re no public spaces. The city suffers from the lack of educational, health and recreational services. There’s a lack of schools, health facilities and parks. There are lots of unused green spaces. Jericho has lots of green spaces within its CBD or in the city itself but these spaces are either left and vacant or used for agricultural purposes. Jericho resident’s way of life can always be better than it already is. The style of life and the way of life of Jericho’s residents can be improved by improving the urban public spaces in the city. 88 5-2 City analysis 5-2-1 Space syntax and transportation Space syntax is the science that deals with the function of raods and their charactrisits as a whole. It’s a science-based, human-focused approach that investigates relationships between spatial layout and a range of social, economic and environmental phenomena.20 The following maps shows the difference in the road-network in 1997 and as in 2016: The space syntax analysis are divided into several categories, this thesis discusses only two of them, which are: 1- Connectivity. 2- Choice. 1- Connectivity. 20 www.spacesyntax.net/ 89 In 1997, the city used to be less connected than in 2016. The new constructed minor local streets had a good impact on the way the city is connected and integrated all together. The following two comparison maps can tell best about what the city’s connectivity seems like: 2- Choice This is another indicator that can test the way this city’s road-network works. The choice in space syntax means the shortest path a person should take to reach to their destination. It measures the shortness of the roads and their ability to give more than one destination. The more the line in the map gets closer to red, the more it provides the needed shortness. The choice means a shortest way possible for a passenger or a walker. Looking through the choice map, you can tell that the closer you get to the CBD of Jericho, the more the choice value is. Meaning that the CBD has a strong choice indicator. Meaning that the CBD gives the shortest destinations in the city: 90 91 5-2-2 Built-up area expansion The build-up area in Jericho doesn’t take much of a space within the city limits. The direction that this built-up area heads to is almost the same: an ellipsoid that is oriented to the north-west as a major axis and to the north-east as a minor axis. The following maps of the 1997, 2007 and 2016 expansions can describe this direction best: 92 93 As a conclusion to the directional expansion of these three interval, this map puts them all together as one-piece: This direction of expansion seems as a long-term trend. It also seems that the future might as well have the same trends. Unless the municipality decided to put on some big projects that might distract or attract such a directional expansion. A simple explanation of why the city directs to this major axis is the fact that the north- west has big tourism based importance. The east-south has the good conditions for residential purposes and uses. This commercial-residential mix of use is stronger than any other sort of use in the city. Until another use takes control and place in Jericho, the conditions and trends are going to be kept on hold. 94 5-2-3 Morphology of the city and related aspects Looking at the city from an urban morphological corner, it will be noticeable that it has a simple way of life, and a simple semi-rural morphology. Small buildings, 2-3 storey buildings, and the agricultural uses. Here’s a map that shows the built-up area growth through time (1957-1993): 95 Comparing a city like Jericho to Bethlehem and Ramallah would give a noticeable difference on how the city is formed. Figure 31: A comparison of Bethlehem, Ramallah and Jericho centres. Jericho is not a big city. Its residents do not want it to be a “new Ramallah” or a “big Nablus”. They like it the way it is now. Jericho is a simple city. Its simplicity make it stronger than any other city in a morphological comparison. No one can feel lost in the city, its roads give you a vibe on where to go, when to stop and where to stop. Figure 32: An aerial photo of Jericho, 30’s. 96 Jericho is divided into 5 main types of urban fabric: 1- The city centre. Which also called “The CBD”. A place where only commercial uses thrive and prosper. 2- The denser expansion. It’s the residential area that surrounds the CBD. It also includes other commercial uses and light industries. 3- The medium-density expansion. This is a pure residential/agricultural use kind of an area. Agricultural use areas can be found as in integration with the core residential use. 4- The urbanized oasis. The oasis are mainly located in the north-west part of the city. They are filled with the agricultural and green use. The urban expansion took place in these areas but not in a full shape. 5- The recently developed area. These areas are mostly residential and are expanding rapidly. Figure 33: Administrative status of Jericho. 97 The following figure places the previously mentioned five elements of the city fabric in one map: 98 5-2-4 Blocks and parcels The following maps shows the city blocks and their inner parcels: Most of the city blocks are filled with agricultural uses. The bigger the block is, the more agricultural use there is in it. The Far East and Far South blocks are mainly agricultural and do not having any sort of residential uses within them. 99 The following map sorts the parcels in the city gradually from small to big in terms of area: The map shows a relation of parcels areas within each block. The closer the parcels to the CBD, the smaller they are. Usually, the small parcels indicate two things: 1- Such parcels have been reparcellated and divided. A property change occurred for these parcels. This process usually took place in the early 00’s, where people started expanding through the lands of the city. 2- These parcels are residential (except for the ones in the CBD). 100 Another relation that involves parcels and blocks is whether they are served with streets or not. This is an indicator of the civil services from the municipality to its residents. The following map shows red and green parcels. Green parcels indicate that they are served by at least one street, while the red ones indicate the exact opposite: 101 5-2-5 Agriculture The following maps shows where the agricultural uses take place in the city: The city is still counting on this sector as one of its main economy-monitoring powers. The unique fields that the city has make it powerful one. Jericho City produces 35% of the national dates.21 The palm field’s agricultural industries provide a steady income for more than 5000 Palestinian workers. 21 Alquds newspaper 102 5-2-6 Archeological sites & urban expansion The significance of Jericho’s archeological sites makes the urban expansion restricted. A 400m buffer zone should be taken around each archeological site to make sure it’s fully protected from any sort of expansion. This map shows the buildings that violate the protection of the historical sites: 103 CHAPTER 6 MACRO INTERVENTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS This chapter deals with the city as a whole. Its scale is big. It discusses the big and general frame of the city. First, city services analysis are applied, then implementations will take place accordingly. Using GIS for analysing services of city facilities, accurate results will be represented. Moreover, a new way is used in this thesis to measure a service range which is “Network analysis” method. This type of analysis measures services according to the network of roads there is. Another method was used to make sure that the results are more accurate, which is: “service area”. This method guarantees to have optimal site selections for any desired proposed facilities. Figure 34: A comparison between the circle buffer method and the service area method. 104 6-1 Education facilities Since the thesis discusses and deals with the “public realm”, private schools were excluded from the analysis of this chapter. The following map locates the governmental and public schools within the city of Jericho: Schools in Jericho can be categorised into: 1- Elementary schools. 2- High schools. 105 6-1-1 Girls’ schools The following map shows the 3 elementary schools that the city provides for girls: Considering an 800m buffer as a range of service leaves a lot of unserved houses. 106 Taking into account the distance required to and the capacity of each school, the following locations are best as a proposal to fix such an issue: The green schools represent the final chosen elementary schools for girls. The red dots above represent proposed sites that are the least favorite to cover the shortage of schools. 107 The following maps shows high schools that cover the range of service for girls in the city of Jericho: And the following maps shows the chosen proposed schools to cover the shortage: 108 6-1-2 Boys’ schools The following map shows the range of service for the boys’ elementary schools: 109 And this is the new proposed school to solve the shortage of schools: The following map shows the range of service for the boys’ high schools: 110 And the solution for such shortage is proposing one new school: 111 6-2 Health facilities Jericho governance depends on one public hospital only to take care of residents of that region. The following map shows the only hospital facility in the area: This sector is an interesting case for these reasons: 1- The hospital covers the desired service range in terms of beds. The hospital serves perfectly. Since it has a 2.4 bed for every 1000 inhabitants. The national standards are close to that ratio (2 beds per 1000 inhabitants)22. 2- The hospital doesn’t cover the whole governance regions. It takes time for Jericho City inhabitants and other regions’ inhabitants to arrive right on time in terms of emergencies. Still, any Jericho resident can tell that one hospital is not enough for the whole governorate. The city seems to need another hospital. 22 Palestinian researchers and health experts. 112 A site selection process was made to have the best suitable site for the desired hospital: Figure 35: A set of criteria to locate the most suitable site for a hospital. The hospital proposed location is shown in this map: 113 The site is located in a relatively cool area. The solar radiation of the place is shown below: Figure 36: The solar radiation of the proposed hospital location. The closer the site to the blue color, the cooler it is. Here’s an aerial photo of the proposed site, with a plan view attached to it: Figure 37: A plan of the proposed hospital. 114 The landscape of the proposed hospital works best for such a hot environment, the greenery in the place gives a sense of coldness and calmness: Figure 38: The plan of the proposed hospital regarding its design, landscape and surroundings. Here are the four sections/views of the proposed design of the hospital: Figure 39: Different elevations of the proposed hospital. 115 6-3 Recreational and public spaces The Spanish Garden is the only real public park for the residents of Jericho. Since it’s considered as a national park, it can cover the whole city. Still, that doesn’t make it an excuse not to have more public parks. 116 According to global standards23, open space per capita is 11m squared. Taking into account the population of Jericho and the areas that are considered open, public and recreational, the city needs to construct 74 donums of park