An-Najah National University Faculty of Graduate Studies Comparative Analysis of Separation Versus Direct Transport of Solid Waste from Tulkarem District to Zahret Al-Finjan By Shereen R. Hamadah Supervisor Prof. Dr. Marwan Haddad This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine. 2011 II Comparative Analysis of Separation Versus Direct Transport of Solid Waste from Tulkarem District to Zahret Al-Finjan By Shereen R. Hamadah This thesis was defended successfully on 23/10/2011 and approved by: Defense Committee Members Signature Pro. Dr. Marwan Haddad (Supervisor). ………………… Dr. No’man Mezyed (Internal Examiner). ………………....... Dr. Maher Abu Madi (External Examiner). …………………… Dr. Shehda Jodeh (Member) …………………… III Dedication To the candles that burnt to light the road for us…..my parents To my soul mate………. My husband. To my brother, sisters and to my faithful friends To all the people who support me especially my teachers Throughout my learning And education life IV Acknowledgment I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. Marwan Haddad for his guidance and constructive advice. Special thanks to my husband for help, encouragements, and patience. Finally, I am very grateful to all those who helped and encouraged me to make this research possible. V : Comparative Analysis of Separation Versus Direct Transport of Solid Waste from Tulkarem District to Zahret Al-Finjan . Declaration The work provided in this thesis, unless otherwise referenced, is the researcher's own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or qualification. Student's name: …………………….......……………… : Signature: ……………………..………………..... : Date: ………………………………………… : VI List of abbreviations ADF Advance Disposal Fees Avg Average C and D Construction and demolition EQA Environmental Quality Authority ERM Environmental Resources Management JCspd Joint Councils for services, planning and development JSC Joint Service Council IDA International Development Association GDP Gross Domestic Product GEO Global Environment Outlook LCA Life Cycle Assessment LGUs Local Governments Units METAP Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Program MRFs Material Recovery Facilities MSW Municipal Solid Waste NIS New Israeli shekel OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PCBS Palestinian Center Bureau of Statistics VII PLO Palestinian Liberation Organization PNA Palestinian National Authority RORO Run On Run Of SVDP Society of st. Vincent De Paul SW Solid Waste TS Transfer Station UNEP United Nations Environment Program UNRWA United nations Relief and Works agency USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency WS Wadi Shaer WSJSC Wadi Shaer Joint Services Council WS-TS Wadi Shaer Transfer Station ZF Zahret Al-Finjan VIII Table of Contents No. Content Page Dedication III Acknowledgment IV Declaration V List of Abbreviations VI Table of Contents VIII List of Tables XI List of Figures XIV Abstract XV Chapter One 1 1 Introduction 1 1.1 General 1 1.2 Significance of the Study 3 1.3 Goals and Objectives of the Study 3 1.4 Study Problem 4 1.5 Study Motivation 4 Chapter Two 5 2 Background 5 2.1 Study Area and Characteristics 5 2.1.1 Location 5 2.1.2 Climate 6 2.1.3 Topography 6 2.1.4 Land use 8 2.1.5 Geology 9 2.1.6 Aquifers 11 2.2 SWM system in Tulkarem District 13 2.2.1 Solid waste management responsibility 13 2.2.2 Operation Aspects 16 2.2.3 Solid waste collection 16 2.2.4 Wadi Shaer Project-Transfer station 20 2.2.5 The existing SWM system in Tulkarem District 22 2.2.5.1 SW collection and responsibility 22 2.2.5.2 SWM Joint services council Employees 25 2.2.5.3 Sources of MSW 26 2.2.5.4 Solid Waste Generation 26 2.2.5.5 Solid Waste composition 26 2.3 Solid Waste Separation 28 2.3.1 Introduction 28 IX No. Content Page 2.3.2 Solid Waste separation Options 29 2.3.2.1 Waste separation at the source of generation 29 2.3.2.2 Waste separation at MRFs and MR/TFs 30 2.4 Solid Waste Impacts 31 2.4.1 Impact on Human Health 31 2.4.2 Impacts on Air 32 2.4.3 Impacts on Groundwater 32 2.4.4 Impact on Landscape and Land use 33 Chapter Three 34 3. Solid Waste Management in different regions 34 3.1 Local Studies 34 3.1.1 Solid waste types, generation and generation 35 3.1.2 Solid waste service fees 40 3.1.3 Existing systems and technical status 41 3.1.4 Solid waste assembly, collection, transfer and transport 42 3.1.5 Transfer and haulage systems 43 3.1.6 Solid waste recycling 44 3.2 Regional Studies 46 3.2.1 SW in regional countries 47 3.2.2 Cost analysis of MSWM 50 3.3 Worldwide Studies 53 3.3.1 Solid Waste Management Techniques 54 3.3.2 Public awareness and willingness for recycling 57 3.3.3 3.3.3 Financial analysis of solid waste management 60 3.3.4 3.3.4 Worldwide studies summary 65 3.4 3.4 Comparative analysis 66 Chapter Four 71 4 Methodology 71 4.1 Experimental Program 71 3.1.1 Solid waste Sorting 71 4.1.1.1 Solid Waste Sampling Precautions 72 4.1.1.2 Procedure 73 4.1.1.3 Calculation 73 4.1.1.4 Apparatus 76 4.1.1.5 Solid waste component categories 78 4.1.2 Field questionnaire 78 4.1.2.1 Design household questionnaire 79 4.1.2.2 Estimation of sample size and distribution 81 4.1.3 Cost Analysis and comparative analysis 82 X No. Content Page 4.1.4 Data Management and Statistical Analysis 84 4.1.4.1 Data Presentation 85 4.1.4.2 Statistical Analysis 87 Chapter Five 88 5.1 Results 88 5. .1.1 Field Survey 88 5.1.2 Pilot separation 104 5.2 Recyclable Materials Quantities 105 5.3 Solid waste Separation Options 107 5.3.1 Direct transport from WS-Transfer station to ZF landfilll (existing situation/Zero Separation): 107 5.3.2 Separation at Source 108 5.3.3 Separation at WS-Transfer station 113 5.3.3.1 Manual separation- scenario one 113 5.3.3.2 Mechanical Separation Scenario (Recycling plant)- scenario two 116 5.4 Cost Analysis 117 5.4.1 Capital cost 118 5.4.2 Revenues 123 5.4.3 Benefit Cost analysis 126 5.4.4 Cash flow diagram 130 5.4.5 Break Event Point 132 5.4.6 Salvage Value 135 5.4.7 Break Even point 136 Chapter Six 139 6.1 Results and Conclusion 139 Chapter Seven 148 7.1 Recommendations and Conclusions 148 References 149 Appendix (A): Table form for solid composition test 157 Appendix(B): Expected total recyclable materials quantities in Tulkarem area in the horizon of 2011- 20year 158 Appendix (C): Detailed tables for the operation and administrative cost costs of the research options 162 Appendix (E): The expected net weights and revenues of the recyclable materials for manual separation at Tulkarem area in 2011 and 2012 years 168 Appendix (E): Questionnaires 178 b XI List of Tables No. Table Page Table 1 Solid Waste management responsibility 15 Table 2 List of Available Solid Waste Collection Vehicles in Local Authorities and Joint Councils 17 Table 3 Travel Distance form Locality to Transfer Station or Final Disposal Site 19 Table 4 SWM responsibility, population and collection frequency 24 Table 5 SWM Staff in Joint Services Council 26 Table 6 Solid Waste composition in Tulkarem city, Al- Kafriyat JSCand Wadi Shaer JSC. 27 Table 7 Solid Waste Generation for South and East Mediterranean countries 48 Table 8 Solid Waste Composition for South and East Mediterranean countries 49 Table 9 Values of mean (x) and standard deviation (s) for within- Weak sampling to determine MSW component composition 74 Table 10 Values of t Statistics (t*) as a Function of Number of Samples and Confidence Interval 75 Table 11 Number of samples for each category of solid waste component 76 Table 12 Selling prices of the recyclable materials in the local market in November, 2011 85 Table 13 Projected; population, SW generation per capita and SW quantities in Tulkarem District 86 Table 14 Distribution of households surveyed according to locality type 87 Table 15 Personal information- SW service employee’s Questionnaire 89 Table 16 response for the definition of SW and SW recycling - SW service employee’s Questionnaire 90 Table 17 Response for Arrangement of the generated SW - SW service employee’s Questionnaire 91 Table 18 Response for SW separation - SW service employee’s Questionnaire 91 Table 19 Response for best separation option - SW service employee’s Questionnaire 92 Table 20 General information- LGUs Questionnaire 93 XII No. Table Page Table 21 Employees information - LGUs Questionnaire 94 Table 22 Municipality orientation towards source separation - LGUs Questionnaire 95 Table 23 Response for SW source separation - LGUs Questionnaire 95 Table 24 Response for SW separation options - LGUs Questionnaire 95 Table 25 Personal information- Households Questionnaire 96 Table 26 General information- Households Questionnaire 97 Table 27 Solid waste composition (according to people opinion)- Households Questionnaire 98 Table 28 Solid waste reuse- Households Questionnaire 98 Table 29 Solid waste separation- Households Questionnaire 99 Table 30 Response of Willingness to start source separation - Households Questionnaire 100 Table 31 Attitude to SW separation at the transfer station- Households Questionnaire 101 Table 32 Response for people cooperation with the authority on source separation – Households Questionnaire 102 Table 33 Attitude for giving recycling operation to private company not to the municipality - Households Questionnaire 102 Table 34 Solid waste composition for Tulkarem District 104 Table 35 Expected total recyclable materials quantities in Tulkarem area in the horizon of 2010, 2015 and 2020 years 106 Table 36 The SW separation percentages experience for three SW components at ZF landfill which receives about 400ton/day 115 Table 37 The expected recyclable materials for mechanical separation 117 Table 38 Capital cost for mechanical separation plant at WS- TS 119 Table 39 Running costs for the for the direct transport from TS to ZF option 121 Table 40 Running costs for the for the manual recycling option 122 Table 41 Running costs for the mechanical recycling plant option 123 XIII No. Table Page Table 42 The expected net weights and revenues of the recyclable materials for manual separation at Tulkarem area in 2011 and 2012 years 124 Table 43 The expected net weights and revenues of the recyclable materials for manual separation at Tulkarem area in 2011 125 Table 44 The expected revenues for the separated waste for manual and mechanical 126 Table 45 Benefits for direct transport to ZF landfill 128 Table 46 Benefits for the manual recycling at WS-TS 129 Table 47 Benefits for the mechanical recycling plant at WS-TS 130 Table 48 Benefit costs ratio for Study Separation options. 134 Table 49 Salvage value for the manual and no separation options 136 Table 50 Salvage value for the mechanical separation option 136 Table 51 The total SW quantities that should be received at recycling plant to reach zero 138 Table 52 Recyclable waste quantities for manual and mechanical separation 141 Table 53 Summary of operational costs for separation options 143 Table 54 Summary of the revenues for solid waste separation options 145 Table 55 Average yearly benefits for solid waste separation options 146 XIV List of Figures No. Figure Page Figure 1 Urban blocks in Tulkarem city [ HWE] 7 Figure 2 Topography of Tulkarem city [ HWE] 8 Figure 3 Outcropping geological formations in Tulkarem city 9 Figure 4 Aquifers in Tulkarem city 12 Figure 5 Authorities Responsible for Solid Waste Management 14 Figure 6 Authorities Responsible for Solid Waste Management after construction WS-TF 23 Figure 7 Solid waste recycling apparatus 77 Figure 8 Solid waste recycling operation 77 Figure 9 Solid waste composition for Tulkarem District 106 Figure 10 modeling for Wadi Shaer Transfer Station 114 Figure 11 Cash flow diagram for the mechanical separation plant scenario at Tulkarem area 130 XV Comparative Analysis of Separation versus Direct Transport of Solid Waste from Tulkarem District to Zahret Al-Finjan By Shereen R. Hamadah Supervisor Prof. Dr. Marwan Haddad Abstract Integrated municipal solid waste management (MSWM) can be defined as the selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies and management programs to achieve waste management objectives and goals. Solid waste management (SWM) is an integral part of the urban environment and planning of the urban infrastructure to ensure a safe and healthy human environment while considering the promotion of sustainable economic growth. In the study area (Tulkarem District), neither MSWM nor SWM is employed: no methods are applied for waste reduction, no recycling and reuse alternatives, and no composting plants exist. This thesis aims to conduct a comparative analysis of solid waste separation options versus direct transport to Zahret Al-Finjan landfill for Tulkarem district to help future policy decisions, evaluating the existing SWM system and estimating the least cost option for managing solid waste in the study area. The responsibility of Tulkarem Joint Services Council for solid waste management is administration of the transfer station and transporting the solid waste from the Wadi Shaer transfer station to Zahret Al Finjan landfill, 19 local authorities are individually responsible for solid waste XVI collection. The members of the council are: Tulkarem city, Wadi Shaer JSC, Al Kafriyat JSC, and Al Sa’biat JSC. Two field works were applied to achieve the study objective and these are: applying a pilot separation and field survey by applying questionnaires to the study area. Three types of questionnaires were used, one for households, another for Local Governmental Units Questionnaire and a third for involved people employees in the SW service. The main aim of the questionnaires is to know people's perceptions toward source separation. The result from all questionnaires that prefer the idea of separation but not at source; it is preferable to be at Wadi Shaer transfer station, so there is no need to do a cost analysis for the "source separation. The main objective of the pilot separation is to determine the solid waste composition in the study area. The average percentage for organic substances is 46% and the other components is 54%. The pilot separation applied depended on ASTM-2008 standard for unprocessed solid waste. Three options were discussed for the municipal solid waste recycling: Direct transport from WS-Transfer station to ZF landfill, separation at source, and separation at transfer station with two scenarios (manual and mechanical). Solid waste recycling options was evaluated by cost analysis and comparing the results to choose the best option. Cost analysis for 20 years (up to 2030) for solid waste separation options is evaluated. The analysis included the capital cost, operational costs, revenues, benefit costs and break even point. XVII Source separation option is cancelled, because the people reflect no perception toward source separation. Direct transport option has no revenues and a yearly loss is increasing. The average yearly revenues for manual separation option is 45,488 US$, but it is not feasible because B/C is negative. Mechanical separation at WS-transfer station has the highest revenue, average yearly revenue is 1,107,349 US $ however in the first five years, an accumulated loss of around 119,732 US $. It is important for this option to know where is the break event point to avoid loss from first year operation, the transfer station should separate 23tons/day of SW and recycle 6 tons/day to break even. The average B/C ratio for this option is 0.9 (near to 1), this option is the best. 1 Chapter One 1. Introduction: 1.1 General: One of the most important issues in the world is the environment and its protection. Today, the progress of human beings and the society is measured by the ability to control the environmental elements. Therefore, the population increases, the industry and agriculture progress, but without following suitable ways for waste collection, transport and treatment. This has resulted in increasing waste quantities and consequently the pollution of the environment including land, water, and air, and exhausting the natural resources in different parts of the world. In most countries, solid waste management has become one of the most vital issues to protect health and public safety (ERM, 2000). Municipal solid waste is a heterogeneous mixture of paper, plastic, cloth, metal, glass, organic matter, etc. generated from households, commercial establishments, and markets. The proportion of different constituents of waste varies from season to season and place to place, depending on the lifestyle, food habits, standards of living, the extent of industrial and commercial activities in the area, etc (Katju, 2006). Processing and recovery includes all techniques, equipment, and facilities used basically to recover recyclable materials, or energy from solid wastes. In recovery of materials separation operations have been devised to recover valuable (recyclable) resources from the mixed solid waste delivered to transfer stations. These operations may include manual 2 separation, mechanical (size) separation, air classifiers, magnetic devices etc. The selection of any material-recovery process is a function of separation cost versus value of the recovered materials. Municipalities, village councils and village communities are responsible for the solid waste management in their own territory while the UNRWA manages the waste in the refugee camps. Daily generation of domestic waste in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip is 2,600 tons in total. In addition, 450tons are generated by the 350,000 Israeli settlers living in the West Bank. All towns and villages in Gaza Strip have collection services while in the West Bank only 25% of the population has a solid waste collection and the waste is disposed randomly in unsatisfactory manner and even burned in the field (El Hawi, 2002). The study area produces about 99 tons per day of MSW in 2011 which is about 35,640 ton per year and this value is increasing annually. The individual average daily solid waste generation is 0.83 kg/d in 2011 (Tulkarem, 2010). This study examines the solid waste separation options in Tulkarem District by studying three different separation options of the solid waste collected from the local communities. Separation options include; zero separation (existing situation/direct transport to Zahret Al Finjan); separation at source and separation at the transfer station. The classification of the reusable and recyclable materials was identified, as well as the percentage of the solid waste that can be separated from the total incoming waste to the Wadi Shaer Transfer station. In addition, the cost analysis for the options has played an important role in evaluating waste disposal 3 methods and advocating one option over the other. Our goal is to quantify the benefits and costs of the SWM options in the study area in order to help future policy decisions and strategies for solid waste management in the area. The main motivation for preparing this study is that all members in Tulkarem Joint Services Council for solid waste management are suffering from SW- fees, they claimed that it is so high and it is important to find a solution for this problem. 1.2 Significance of the Study: The results of this research will help in performing new strategy for solid waste management in Tulkarem District and knowing the significance of solid waste recycling and recovery of materials. Tulkarem Governorate in fact lacks for the real data about solid waste composition percentages (in general). And it worth menthioning that the role of Tulkarem Joint Services Council for Solid Waste Management should be wider. 1.3 Goals and Objectives of the Study: The main goal of this study is to conduct a comparative analysis of solid waste separation options versus direct transport to Zahret Al-Finjan landfill for Tulkarem district. As a secondary objective assessment of the status of solid waste management in the study area was considered. The specific objectives are to: Determine the components and the quantities of solid wastes generated at Tulkarem District and Assess and quantify availability of raw materials that can be recovered. 4 Determine the knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of people for the acceptance for solid waste recycling and reusing it in their houses. Identify domestic market possibilities for the solid wastes recovered from the separation process. 1.4 Study Problem The problem of this study can be summarized as follows: Earlier contacts with Tulkarem Joint Services Council for solid waste management, revealed that the JSC suffer from problems of persistent financial deficit that leads for imbalancing in management and services. An additional problem is the lack of information about solid waste composition in Tulkarem district. There is limited knowledge on the importance of solid waste separation for solid waste management and its effects on the revenues for the community that will help in reducing the solid waste transporting tariff. 1.5 Study Motivation: The main motivation for this study that the Joint Services Council for Solid Waste Management in Tulkarem Governorate has no acceptance for the importance for solid waste recycling, although they transfer around 99 ton/ day to ZF landfilll. Thus this action will reduce the solid waste tariff fees that the authorities should pay. 5 Chapter Two 2. Background 2.1 Study Area and Characteristics: Tulkarem is a Palestinian city in the Tulkarem Governorate in the extreme north West Bank. The population density in the Tulkarm District is about 682 person/km². The current population of the Tulkarm district is estimated at 172,793 people, which includes the two refugee camps, Tulkarm and Nur Shams, representing about 7% of the total West Bank population[PCBS, 2006]. The number of people living in the rural areas is estimated at 71,738, representing 41% of the total population of the district. About 21,464 people live in the refugee camps while the rest are residing in the urban areas [HWE, 2008]. 2.1.1 Location: The city is situated on the western part of the north West bank,. It is bordered by the 1948 cease-fire line in the west. Its central location between a plain and a mountain has made it commercially and strategically significant and has had a great effect on its growth. In the past, Tulkarem was a caravan station and a trading center for products from the city's surrounding villages and farms, as well as a point from which armies crossed to Egypt and the Levant. Tulkarem is at the crossroads of three historically important arteries: A road which runs north from the Latrun area along the edge of the plain to Mount Carmel and the Galilee, a road which winds northward along the outer tier of hills from the Ajlon valley to the Jezreel Valley, and a road 6 that rises from the Mediterranean Sea to Nablus. In the past it was a junction of the coastal railroad from north of Haifa to Cairo and a branch of the narrow gauge Hejaz railway to Damascus [HWE, 2009]. 2.1.2 Climate: The climate of Tulkarem is subtropical, with rainfall limited to the winter. The average temperature in the winter ranges from 8 to 16 °C, while the average temperature in the summer ranges from 17 to 30 °C. Tulkarem is distinguished by the moderating effect the sea breeze has on its climate. The average temperature is 27 °C in August, while February's average temperature doesn’t fall below 13.5 °C. Humidity is moderate in summer, about 40-70%, though it rises in winter to between 70-85%. Tulkarem receives in excess of 550 millimeters of rain yearly, which is dispersed and intermittent, characteristic of the Mediterranean Basin [HWE, 2008]. 2.1.3 Topography: Topography and Drainage: Tulkarem city lies on the western slopes of the West Bank, which are characterized by gentle slopes. The city is divided into six built up urban areas: Shweikeh, Anabta, Thinnaba, Tulkarem, Faron, and Irtah, as shown in Figure 1. The elevation in the city ranges between 50 to 180 meters above sea level. 7 Figure 1: Urban blocks in Tulkarem city [ HWE, 2008]. There are many valleys located in the district such as Wadi Abu Nar, Wadi Ammar, Wadi Hawwatut, Wadi AlSham, Wadi Masseen, Wadi Al Teen, and Wadi Zeimar, that drain to the west and ultimately to the Mediterranean Sea. Two valleys are within the municipal boundaries: Wadi Zeimar and Wadi Tin. When Wadi Zeimar crosses into Israel it is called the Alexander Stream, and it runs through Emek Hefer municipality before reaching the Mediterranean Sea [HWE, 2008]. See Figure 2. 8 Figure 2: Topography of Tulkarem city [HWE, 2008]. 2.1.4 Land use: Tulkarem was built over a higher area than that surrounding it. The land which was formed as a result of the new fourth epoch consists mostly of creeping sands from the west to the east. The mountainous valleys carry quantities of alluvium and gravel to Tulkarem's lands in seasons of heavy rain and floods, thus creating fertile soil. In addition, an aquifer feeds numerous wells and springs in the area. Tulkarem's arable land allows the city inhabitants to produce citrus fruits, melons, olives, olive oil, tomatoes, potatoes, wheat, sesame, peanut, eggplant, peppers, green beans, guava, and other products. Land designations in the West Bank are defined by "Oslo II" interim agreement, where Tulkarem proper is located in Area A, or under full Palestinian control. 9 2.1.5 Geology: The outcrop geological formations of the Tulkarem governorate range in age from Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary. The district is mainly covered by sedimentary carbonate rocks such as limestone, dolomite, marl and chalk. The general geology of the Tulkarem area is represented in Figure 3 [HWE, 2008]. A brief description of the lithological formations encountered in the Tulkarem District. Figure 3: Outcropping geological formations in Tulkarem city [HWE, 2008] . Upper Cenomanian: The Upper Cenomanian formation (also known as the Bethlehem formation) consists of limestone, dolomite with chalk, and marl. Outcrops are found mainly on the flank of the A’nabta anticline. The dolomite forms a rugged morphology on gentle slopes. 10 Turonian: The Turonian formation (also known as the Jerusalem formation) consists of a series of massive, thick- to- thin bedded limestone to dolomitic limestone and dolomites with a thickness of approximately 70- 130m. The lower part of the Turonian formation consists mainly of limestone and dolomite with marl and some chalk, making it sometimes difficult to be distinguished from the underlying Bethlehem formation. Towards the top of this formation, chalk beds with occasional chert bands are common, and the formation is transitional to the overlying chalk facies. The Turonian formation has a well-developed karst feature and is commonly used as a building stone. It is exposed in the A’nabta anticline and is considered a very good aquifer. Senonian: The Senonian formation is mainly made up of Cretaceous Rocks, which are composed of chalk. Outcrops exist in the A’nabat anticline and on the western limb of Nablus-Beit Qad syncline. In the A’nabta area, the chalk is thin and consists of marly base and passes upwards through bedded and crystalline limestone that has few marl partings. Eocene: The Eocene formation is composed of tertiary rocks, which are exposed in the Anabta area and in the Nablus- Beit Qad syncline. It is mainly composed of chalk and limestone. The exposure area of this sub- series is widespread and covers about one third of the total area of the Northern West Bank. Five facies of this formation have been identified: 11 chalk with minor chert, chalk with minor interblended nummulitic limestone, limestone with minor interblended chalk, bedded massive nummulitic limestone and reef limestone. The presence of the limestone and the conglomerate lenses form a good aquifer while the chalk and marl act as a good aquiline. Quaternary: Quaternary rocks are divided into the following formations: 1. Lisan Formation: these recent sediments are mainly composed of alluvium consisting of limestone, chart and clay. 2. Nari Formation: it occurs mainly in high rainfall areas where carbonate rocks are dissolved by percolating water. It forms a thin coating over the limestone with a thickness of about 10-15 m. 2.1.6 Aquifers: The major aquifers in the area are the Shallow Aquifer and the Upper Cenomanian-Turonian complexes. The Abu Dis acts as an acquired hence, forming a water barrier. The Upper Aquifer is the predominant aquifer in the region. Figure 4 shows available aquifers in Tulkarem [HWE, 2008]. 12 Figure 4: Aquifers in Tulkarem city [HWE, 2008]. The Upper Aquifer System: The Upper Aquifer is represented by the formations of the age Turonian (Jerusalem formation) and Cenomanian (Bethlehem and Hebron formations). Turonian Aquifer: The Turonian aquifer is part of the Upper Aquifer but can be classified as a distinct local aquifer if the formation beneath it acts as an aquitard as is the case in some areas in the eastern and southern parts of the West Bank. The Turonian aquifer is considered a fairly good aquifer especially where the saturation thickness is in tens of meters. This aquifer is of good thickness and extent in the Tulkarm area (approximately 130 m thick). The water quality of this aquifer is generally good but in some areas there is evidence of deterioration because of sewage and agro-chemical pollution. 13 Cenomanian Aquifer: The formations of this aquifer are the Bethlehem and Hebron. The aquifer is an important regional source of water supply for domestic use. The Cenomanian Aquifer has high recharge values. It is heavily exploited in the areas near Tulkarm and Qalqilya because the aquifer is at a shallow depth in this area. The depth to water is rarely more than 200 m below ground surface. 2.2 SWM system in Tulkarem District: 2.2.1 Solid waste management responsibility: The Palestinian Local Authorities Law No. 1 of 1997 assigns the responsibility of SWM services to local authorities. As articulated in article (15), they are responsible for the collection of waste from streets, houses and public stores as well as for the transportation and disposal of the collected waste. Moreover the law provides for Local authorities to establish Joint Services Councils through which they may collaborate in the delivery of services, including waste management [ARIJ, 2009]. Currently, there are 5 Joint Councils for services, planning and development (HCspd) in the Tulkarem Governorate, namely HCspd-Al Kafriyat, the HCspd- Al Sha'rawieh, the HCspd-Al Sa’biat, the JC for services and regional planning-Wadi Al Shaer and the Joint Services Council –Wadi Al Zeimar. Only two of these councils provide the member local authorities with the service of SWM including the HCspd-Al Kafriyat and the HCspd-Al Sa’biat. Accordingly, each of the remaining local authorities is individually responsible for managing the solid waste 14 generated within jurisdiction (Figure 1). There are 5 village councils that have hired a contractor to collect and dispose of the generated solid waste and two other local authorities, which are Dir Al Ghusun Municipality and Al-Jarushiya village Council, have acquired the SWM service provided by the Joint Services Council for SWM-Jenin. As regards to the two refugee camps in Tulkarem Governorate, it should be noted that the UNRWA is responsible for the collection and transfer of the generated solid waste to Far'oun dumpsite. Tulkarem Governorate (33 localities) Served Localities (30 localities) Un-Served Localities (3 localities) Solid Waste Management Responsibility Al Masqufa, Akkaba and Al Haffasi Local Authority Joint Council Contractor Hired by the Local Authority 15 localities 10 localities 5 localities Tulkarem Municipality HCspd- Al Sa’biat: Seida Village Council Attil Municipality Far'oun village council Nazlet Isa village council Dir Al Ghusun Municipality Shufa village council An Nazla ash Sharqiya Village council Qaffin Municipality Kafa project committee An Nazla al Gharbiya Village council Illar Municipality An Nazla al Wusta Village council Baqa Ash Sharqiya Municipality HCspd- Al Kafriyat: Zeita Municipality Kafr Jammal village council Anabta municipality Kafr Abbush village council Bal'a municipality Kafr Zibad village council Beit Lead municipality Kafr Sur village council Kafr al Labad municipality Ar Ras project committee Al-Jarushiya village council Kur Project committee Ramin village council Khirbet Jubara progect committee Iktaba village council Saffarin village council (1) Dir Al Ghusun Municipality and Al-Jarushiya Village Council, have acquired the SWM service provided by the JSC for SWM - Jenin Figure 5: Authorities Responsible for Solid Waste Management [ARIJ, 2009]. For more clarification, Table (1) detail all local authorities in Tulkarem Governorate, type and solid waste management responsibility. 15 Table (1): Distribution of Solid Waste Management Responsibility [Rafa, 2007] Locality Locality Type Solid waste Management esponsibility Tulkarem Urban Tulkarem Municipality Attil Urban Attil Municipality Dir Al Ghusun Urban Dir Al Ghusun Municipality Qaffin Urban Qaffin Municipality Illar Urban Illar Municipality Baqa ash Sharqiya Urban Baqa ash Sharqiya Municipality Zeita Rural Zeita Municipality Seida Rural Contractor hired by the Village Council Nazlat Isa Rural Contractor hired by the Village Council An Nazala Ash Sharqiya Rural Contractor hired by the Village Council Al-Jarushiya Rural Al-Jarushiya Village Council(1) An Nazala Al Gharbiya Rural Contractor hired by the Village Council An Nazala Al Wusta Rural Contractor hired by the Village Council Al Masqufa Rural No Service is Provided Akkaba Rural No Service is Provided Anabta Urban Anabta Municipality Bal'a Urban Bal'a Municipality Biet Lid Urban Biet Lid Municipality(2) Kafr al Labad Rural Kafr al Labad Municipality Ramin Rural Ramin Village Council(3) Iktaba Rural Iktaba Village Council(3) Sffarin Rural Sffarin Village Council(2) Al Haffasi Rural No Service is Provided Far'un Rural HCspd - Al Sa’biat Shufa Rural Kafa Rural Kafr Jammal Rural HCspd - Al Kafriyat Kafr Abbush Rural Kafr Zibad Rural Kafr Sur Rural Ar Ras Rural Kur Rural Khirbet Jubara Rural 16 (1) The village council is benefiting from the sevices offered by Dir Al Ghusun Municipality that has signed an agreement with Zahret Al Fonjan to collect and transport the solid wastes. (2) Beit Lid Municipality and Saffarin village council cooperate with each other in SWm services as they share the same tractor to collect and dispose of the generated SW. (3) The village Councils of Ramin and Iktaba share the same tractor and workers. 2.2.2 Operational Aspects: The practices for managing solid waste in Tulkarem Governate until 2010 are limited to the collection of the generated waste, and to the transport and dumping to the collected waste in the disposal sites. Based on the 2007 census data, the total population living in the Tulkarem Governorate, excluding the two refugee camps, was 139,802 inhabitants. Approximately 58.5% of the total population lives in the urban areas and remaining 41.5% of the population is distributed in Tulkarem rural areas [Tulkarem, 2008]. 2.2.3 Solid Waste Collection: The solid waste collection containers and vehicles that are currently used in the localities served vary in number and size. As regards to the available solid waste collection fleet in the Governorate, there are 5 tractors and 17 compactors of different capacities as follows: 4 compactors of 3-7m³ capacity, 14 compactors of 8-10m³ capacity, 8 compactors of 13m³ capacity and 1 compactor of 20 ton capacity. Accordingly, the average number of solid waste collection vehicles per 1,000 persons 0.158 vehicles. The details regarding the available solid waste collection vehicles in Local Authorities and Joint Councils in Tulkarem Governorate are presented in Table (2) [Tulkarem, 2008]. 17 Table (2): List of Available Solid Waste Collection Vehicles in Local Authorities and Joint Councils [Tulkarem, 2008]. Local Authority / Joint Council Type Capacity (m3) Tulkarem Municipality Compactor 20 ton Compactor 13 Compactor 13 Compactor 13 Compactor 13 Compactor(1) 15 Compactor 9 Compactor 4 Compactor 13 Attil Municipality Compactor 8 Qaffin Municipality Compactor 13 Illar Municipality Compactor 13 Baqa ash Sharqiya Municipality Compactor 13 Tractor --- Zeita Municipality Tractor --- Anabta Municipality Compactor 6 Bal'a Municipality Compactor 9 Tractor (2) --- Biet Lid Municipality and Sffarin Village(3) Tractor --- Kafr al Labad Municipality Compactor 8 Ramin and Iktaba Village Council(3) Tractor --- HCspd - Al Kafriyat Compactor 5 HCspd - Al Sa’biat Compactor 5 Dir Al Ghusun, Seida, Nazlat Isa, An Nazala Ash Sharqiya, Al-Jarushiya, An Nazala, Al Gharbiya, An Nazala Al Wusta, Al Masqufa, Akkaba and Al Haffasi No Compactor --- Notes: (1) The compactor is not used any more due its bad condition. (2) The tractor belongs to the JC spd- Wadi Shaer and is shared with Kafr al Labad Municipality. (3) The two local authorities share the same tractor that belongs to the JC spd - Wadi Shaer to collect and dispose of generated solid waste. 18 Currently the collected solid waste in Tulkarem, Far'oun, Shufa, Kafa, Kafr Jammar, Kafr Abbush, Kafr Zibad, Kafr Sur, Ar Ras, Kur and Khirbet Jubara is transferred to Far'oun dumping site that is used as a transfer station before transferring it to Zahret Al Finjan sanitary landfilll in Jenin. Moreover, the solid waste collected in Attil, Dir Al Ghusun and Al- Jarushiya is directly transferred to ZF landfill. In the remaining localities, the collected solid waste is disposed of in 12 dumping sites including Anabta dumping site and 11 random dumping sites. Anabta dumping site is used by municipalities of Anabta, Bal'a, and Beit lead and the village councils of Ramin and Iktaba. Open burning of collected solid waste is practiced in all the uncontrolled dumping sites. The distance travelled by solid waste collection vehicles to the final disposal sites varies from one locality to another depending on the location of the disposal site and the availability of a transfer and haulage system. In the Tulkarem Governorate, transfer and haulage exist only in Far'oun dumping site as mentioned above with an average transport/travel distance of 32 km to ZF landfill. The travel distance from the localities that are using Far'oun transfer station varies from 2-15 km as illustrated in table (3) furthermore; the distance from the locality to the random dumping site does not exceed 4 km. 19 Table (3): Travel Distance form Locality to Transfer Station or Final Disposal Site [ARIJ, 2009]. Solid Waste Disposal Site Local Authority / Joint Council Travel Distance form Locality to Transfer Station or Final Disposal Site (Km) Far'un dumping site/transfer station then to Zahret Al Finjan sanitary landfill Tulkarem Municipality 4.0 HCspd - Al Sa’biat Far'un Village Council 2.0 Shufa Village Council 8.0 Kafa Project Committee 4.0 HCspd - Al Kafriyat: 15.0 Village Councils of Kafr Jammal, Kafr Abbush, Kafr Zibad, Kafr Sur and the Project Committees of Ar Ras, Kur and Khirbet Jubara Directly to Zahret Al Finjan sanitary landfill Attil Municipality 21.0 Dir Al Ghusun Municipality 25.0 Al-Jarushiya Village Council 20.0 Anabta dumping site Anabta Municipality 5.0 Bal'a Municipality 3.5 Biet Lid Municipality 10.0 Ramin Village Council 10.0 Iktaba Village Council 6.0 Random dumping site Qaffin Municipality 2.0 Illar Municipality 2.5 Baqa ash Sharqiya Municipality 3.0 Zeita Municipality 1.0 Seida Village Council 4.0 Nazlat Isa Village Council 1.5 An Nazala Ash Sharqiya Village Council 1.0 An Nazala Al Gharbiya Village Council 2.0 An Nazala Al Wusta Village Council 2.0 Kafr al Labad Municipality 5.0 Sffarin Village Council 1.5 20 2.2.4 Wadi Shaer Project-Transfer station: Waste transfer stations are facilities where municipal solid waste is unloaded from collection vehicles and briefly held while it is reloaded onto larger long distance transport vehicles for shipment to landfills or other treatment or disposal facilities. In the context of improving the solid waste management systems in the West Bank and Gaza, the Italian Government has agreed in April 2004 for grant about 1.678 US $ million to assist in financing the improvement methods of solid waste collection and disposal in Wadi Shaer Joint Service Council (WS-JSC). The agreement signed on June 2008 between the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) on behalf the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and the International Development Association (IDA) on behalf the Italian Government. Meanwhile, the administration of the project is governed by the World Bank. The project aims mainly to improve the methods of waste collection and disposal in WS-JSC area which includes seven local communities in Tulkarem Governorate including Anabta, Bala', Kufur Allabad, Ramin, Beit Lead, Safareen, and Iktaba [WSJSC, 2010]. The new transfer station is simple. Collection trucks can unload directly their waste into a waiting transfer container of 32 m³. The proposed transfer station is open, not covered, but is surrounded by fences that limit access to the site. All waste collected is brought to the transfer station and downloaded in big containers with 32m³ capacity. These containers will be then transferred to the Zahret Al-Finjan landfill using a transfer truck with RORO trailer. If such station is built, then the collection trucks can bring 21 all the collected garbage to the station from where it will be transported to Zahret Al Finjan landfill site which is about 23 km away from the station and along the road of Anabata - Bazaria - Silat Al Dhaher- Sanur to Fahma Al Jadida and down to the Zahret Al Finjan Landfill. In any case this is the nearest route available nowadays to Zahret Al Finjan Landfill. The station has easy entry access and exits for trucks. It has a ramp for tipping, roll-off containers of 32 m3 capacity, service room, leachate collection tank, washing facilities, truck scale and will be used as a parking lot for the garbage trucks and washing of the collection trucks and cars owned by the JSC regularly. The side effects for construction the transfer station are the rehabilitation and closure of the uncontrolled dumping sites one located on the road from Anabta to Tulkarem, close to the new proposed transfer station. The area of the dumpsite is about 20,000 m2, and currently receives 25 tons of mixed waste daily. The bad practice of burning the waste creates heavy smoke, which is a hazard to residents, drivers, visitors on the adjacent road. In addition to the Anabta main dumpsite. also another random dumpsites in Kufur labad town of about 15,000 m2 are closed, rehabilitated, and returned back for agricultural use. All bad practices of burning the waste that creates heavy smoke, which forms a sever hazard to residents, drivers, visitors on the adjacent road is terminated, and this major environmental problem comes to its end. It is important to mention that after starting construction of Wadi Shaer transfer station encouraged to start rehabilitation and closing Far'oun dump site, which is located in the south-east side of Tulkarem City outside the municipality boarder and spreads over an area of 10,000 m2. 22 The second effect is the improvement of the solid waste collection and management by provision of supplementary solid waste equipment including supply of new solid waste collection trucks with compactors, and a transfer truck with trailer truck of a total capacity of 40 ton in order to improve the collection and transportation systems for the council member villages. The management services shall be also improved by the supply of other needed equipment such as containers in different sizes, trashes, bins, bags and other solid waste tools. 2.2.5 The existing SWM system in Tulkarem District: 2.2.5.1 SW collection and responsibility: After construction Wadi Shaer transfer station, the council signed agreement with Solid Waste Management Council to administrate the transfer station and transporting the solid waste from T.S to Zahret Al Finjan landfilll which is about 23 km away from the station. The member ships of SWM JSC are listed below: 1) Tulkarem Municipality: acts its city and suburbs. 2) Wadi Shaer JSC: acts 7 local authority. 3) Al Kafriyat JSC: acts 7 local authority. 4) Al Sa’biat JSC: acts 5 local authority. Figure below shows the structure of solid waste management for the local authorities after construction Wadi Shaer transfer station. 23 Tulkarem Governorate (33 localities) Served Localities(32 localities) Un-Served Localities(1 localities) Solid Waste Management Responsibility Akkaba Local Authority Direct Transport Contractor Hired by the To ZF (1) Local Authority(2) 19 localities 10 localities 3 localities Tulkarem Municipality Illar Municipality Seida Village Council Wadi Shaer JSC Dir Al Ghusun Municipality Qaffin Municipality Anabta municipality Al Masqufa Zeita Municipality Beit Lead municipality Al-Jarushiya village council Kafr al Labad municipality Attil Municipality Bal'a municipality Baqa Ash Sharqiya Municipality Ramin village council An Nazla al Gharbiya Village council Iktaba village council An Nazla ash Sharqiya Village council Saffarin village council An Nazla al Wusta Village council HCspd- Al Sa’biat: Nazlet Isa village council Al Haffasi Far'oun village council Shufa village council Kafa project committee HCspd- Al Kafriyat: Kafr Jammal village council Kafr Abbush village council Kafr Zibad village council Kafr Sur village council Ar Ras project committee Kur Project committee Khirbet Jubara progect committee (1) The localities have acquired the SWM service provided by the JSC for SWM – Jenin (ZF) (2) The localities have their own collecting Vehicle, but they transport SW directly to ZF. Figure 6: Authorities Responsible for Solid Waste Management after construction WS-TF. The actual role for Joint Services Council for Solid Waste Management is the administration of the transfer station (Wadi Shaer Transfer station) and transporting the solid waste from TS to Zahret Al Finjan landfill, and the other 19 localities are individually responsible for the collection of waste from streets, houses and public stores as well as for the transportation of the collected waste to the transfer station. 24 Table (4): SWM responsibility, population and collection frequency. Locality Solid waste Management Responsibility Population 2007 PCBS, 2007 Collection Frequency (days/week) Tulkarem Camp UNRWA 10,545 6 Nur Shams Camp UNRWA 6,421 6 Tulkarem Tulkarem Municipality 50,838 7 Attil Attil Municipality 8,957 6 Dir Al Ghusun Dir Al Ghusun Municipality 8,168 6 Qaffin Contractor hired by the Village Council 8,312 6 Illar Illar Municipality 6,134 6 Baqa ash Sharqiya Baqa ash Sharqiya Municipality 4,064 6 Zeita Contractor hired by the Village Council 2,826 6 Seida Contractor hired by the Village Council 2,903 6 Nazlat Isa Nazlat Isa Village Council 2,313 6 An Nazala Ash Sharqiya An Nazala Ash Sharqiya council 1,500 6 Al-Jarushiya Al-Jarushiya Village Council 924 6 An Nazala Al Gharbiya An Nazala Al Gharbiya council 929 6 An Nazala Al Wusta An Nazala Al Wusta council 337 6 Al Masqufa Dir Al Ghusun Municipality 258 6 Akkaba No Service is Provided 252 6 Anabta Anabta Municipality Wadi Shae r JSC 7,263 6 Bal'a Bal'a Municipality 6,545 6 Biet Lid Biet Lid Municipality 4,949 6 Kafr al Labad Kafr al Labad Municipality 4,037 6 25 Ramin Ramin Village Council 1,790 6 Iktaba Bal'a Municipality 2,641 6 Sffarin Biet Lid Municipality 753 6 Al Haffasi Kafr al Labad Municipality 156 6 Far'un HCspd - Al Sa’biat 3,072 6 Shufa 2,174 6 Kafa 400 6 Kafr Jammal HCspd - Al Kafriyat (called now Al Kafriyat Municipality) 2,402 6 Kafr Abbush 1,444 6 Kafr Zibad 1,068 6 Kafr Sur 1,107 6 Ar Ras 535 6 Kur 260 6 Khirbet Jubara 290 6 2.2.5.2 SWM Joint services council Employees: According to SWM council, 11 employees and workers divided into two parts, 3 are administrators and 8 are transfer station workers. As summarized in table 5, 2 drivers (from Wadi Shaer transfer station to ZF landfill), 1 cleaner man (responsible for cleaning TS), 1 worker works on bagger to transport the SW in the 32m³ containers after the compactors loading the waste, 1 worker is responsible for monitoring the Balance and recording the SW weights, 1 admin to administrate and monitoring the works inert the TS, 1 mechanical engineer is responsible for the vehicles maintenance, his work is part time just for the need. 26 Table (5): SWM Staff in Joint Services Council. Item Frequency Notes 1 Executive manager 1 Administrators 2 Accountant 1 3 Secretary 1 4 Drivers 2 TS employees 5 Cleaner Man 1 6 Loader "Bager" laborer 1 7 Balance Monitor 1 8 Guard 1 9 Mechanical Engineer 1 Part time 10 Admin 1 TS employees Total 11 2.2.5.3 Sources of MSW: Report from Tulkarem Municipality estimated that household waste accounts for 50% of the total solid waste, with the construction and industrial sectors together constituting 25%, and remaining types (e.g. commercial, institutional) about 25%. Hazardous material is to some extent present in all these waste types, although such material is only a significant component of industrial and hospital waste. 2.2.5.4 Solid Waste Generation: The generated solid waste per capita per day in Tulkarem governorate for the year 2005 is 0.8kg and expected to increase to 0.85 in the year 2010. In the year 2015 the estimated generated solid waste per capita per day is 0.9 (HWE, 2009). 2.2.5.5 Solid Waste composition: For the estimation of the required capacity of the solid waste transfer station over a 20-year period, the available data on the waste composition 27 has to be considered, mainly with respect to the (feasible) options for separation and recycling. Unfortunately until the preparation of this report, no reliable data exist except that carried out by Municipality of Tulkarem. Table 6, show the solid waste composition measured at various places in Tulkarem city, Alkafriyat and Wadi Shaer JSC respectively. Table (6): Solid Waste composition in Tulkarem city, Al-Kafriyat JSCand Wadi Shaer JSC. %organic %Metal %Paper %Glass %Plastic % Others Tulkarem City [HWE, 2009] 43 16 19 9 10 3 Al-Kafriyat JSC [HWE, 2009] 50 10 12 3 11 14 Wadi Shaer JSC [Polse, A. and Hamzeh, T., 2001] 74 2 9 2 10 3 Average 55.6 9.3 13.3 4.6 10.3 6.9 By giving this relatively high organic component, the option of composting should be considered in the near future as a serious alternative, not only to reduce the waste volumes to be disposed at the landfilll, but also with respect to a possible use as an alternative for soil improver or fertilizer. Also the high composition of metal and paper, encourage performing separation stage at the transfer station. 28 2.3 Solid Waste Separation: 2.3.1 Introduction: It is known that the management of solid waste from the point of generation to final disposal can be grouped into six functional steps as follows: Waste generation; Storage (in the containers); Collection; Transfer and transport; Processing and recovery; and Final disposal. Processing and recovery includes all techniques, equipment, and facilities used basically to recover recyclable materials, or energy from solid wastes. In recovery of materials; separation operations have been devised to recover valuable (recyclable) resources from the mixed solid waste delivered to transfer stations. These operations may include manual separation, mechanical (size) separation, air classifiers, magnetic devices etc. The selection of any material-recovery process is a function of separation cost versus value of the recovered materials. The separation of solid waste components including papers, cardboard, aluminum, plastic,….etc is one of the most positive and effective ways to achieve the recovery and reuse materials and some of waste component is separated and then are soled for special companies. Recycling is a series of activities, which includes separation, collection, transferring, transporting, sorting and processing. Materials disposed after use are recycled from the municipal waste stream and used as raw materials to manufacture products. Recycling is considered as an effective method for sustainable waste management. 29 Recycling has increasingly been adopted by communities as a method of managing municipal solid waste. It is the process used to convert certain waste materials to new materials or products. This achieved by the separation of the waste at the source (point of generation) by the residents, waste pickers, and waste collectors, and/or separation by recycling plant at the site (transfer stations and/or landfills). Some recycled materials have high percentage of organic waste such as leaves, grass, food waste, etc which can be used for soil improvement due to controlled decomposition of organic materials. The conversion of waste materials into soil additives is called composting. 2.3.2 Solid Waste separation Options: Separation is a necessary operation in the recovery of reusable and recyclable materials from municipal solid waste. Separation can be accomplished at the source of generation MRFs depending on the separation objectives, variety of MRFs or MR/TFs can be developed. The reuse and recycling opportunities and the options available for the separation of materials will affect the type of waste management program implemented by a community. 2.3.2.1 Waste separation at the source of generation: Waste separation at the source is usually accomplished by manual means. The number and types of components separated will depend on the waste diversion goals established for the program. Even though waste materials have been separated at the source, additional separation and processing will usually be required before these materials can be reused or recycled. 30 2.3.2.2 Waste separation at MRFs and MR/TFs: MRFs and MR/TFs are used for the further processing of source – separated wastes obtained from curbside collection programs and drop-off and buy-back centers without processing facilities, the separation and recovery of reusable and recyclable materials from commingled MSW, and improvements in the quality (specifications) of the recovered waste materials. In the simplest terms, a MRF can function as a centralized facility for the separation, cleaning, packaging, and shipping of large volumes of materials recovered from MSW. Manual versus mechanical separation: From MSW can be accomplished manually or mechanically. Manual separation is used almost exclusively for the separation of wastes at the source of generation. Many of early MRFs built in the 1970s were designed to separate the waste components mechanically. Unfortunately, none of these early facilities is currently in operation, primarily because of mechanical problems. The current trend is to design MRFs based on the integration of both manual and mechanical separation functions. MRFs for source separated wastes: The types of source separated materials that are separated further at MRFs may include paper and cardboard from mixed paper and cardboard, aluminum from commingled aluminum and tin cans, plastics by class from commingled plastics, aluminum cans, tin cans, plastics, and glass from mixture of these materials, glass by color (clear amber, and green). 31 MRFs for commingled MSW: All types of waste components can be separated from commingled MSW. Wastes are typically separated both manually and mechanically. The sophistication of the MRF will depend on the number and types of components to be separated, the waste diversion goals established for the waste recovery program, and the specifications to which the separated product must conform. 2.4 Solid Waste Impacts: 2.4.1 Impact on Human Health: All dumping sites in Palestine are not fenced; adults and children frequently search the garbage there. All kind of collected solid wastes are mixed and dumped together, including hazardous medical wastes generated at the health centers located in the target area (including nearby houses in dumping sites). These wastes are collected and treated in the same way as any other solid waste. It is of our interest not to have any accident like the one occurred in Yatta/ Hebron dumping site where several children were injured in an explosion caused by unknown factors. The relationship between solid waste and human diseases is intuitively obvious, but difficult to prove. There are many human diseases associated with solid waste. These diseases are supported by the growth of insects and rodents which ultimately transfer these diseases to human beings. 32 2.4.2 Impacts on Air: Solid waste that is randomly dumped, and waste in dumping sites is continuously burned. This may have a great impact on the health of the nearby population. There are 4 houses 20 meters far from the dump site. Others houses are 200 meters away from the dump site. The methane gas produced from the fermentation of organic generates fire, leading to open burning of the accumulated solid waste. All sorts of heavy meals, dioxins and organic pollutants are released to air. A continuous polluting fume is created from burning of solid waste is 85-90% ash while 15-10% is fly ash which plays a role in air pollution. The nearby residents are the most likely to be impacted by air pollution, pollution of groundwater, scavengers, insects and odors [HWE, 2009]. 2.4.3 Impacts on Groundwater: Water is a valuable recourse in this arid area and may be impacted by the high number of scattered dumping sites over the West Bank. The existing dumping sites are not covered or lined from the bottom to protect the groundwater and surface water. Runoff passes through the waste. This contaminated water then flows to the nearby valley, or seeps into the ground, where it is eventually causes pollution to the groundwater. Pollution of water resources is particularly likely where there is heavy Rainfall and rapid percolation through the soil. Also, for Feroun dump site the nearest wadi to it is Wadi Alteen. This makes the situation more dangerous as the methane gas and contaminants coming from the leachate of solid waste pollutes the surface water and the springs of Wadi Alteen. This water constitutes a major 33 drinking water resource for Tulkarem and the surrounding towns and villages. Any contamination to this water source can affect people in the target area [HWE, 2009]. 2.4.4 Impact on Landscape and Land use: The solid waste dumped is spread over than large areas. The accumulated solid waste form a pyramid of solid waste which is always under burn either by human or as a result of methane gas resulted from the biodegradation of materials dumped. These quantities are above the street level and should be removed. Due to the expansion of the dump site the nearby lands were badly affected and are not of good use for agriculture. The overall sight view is very bad and not acceptable. 34 Chapter Three Solid Waste Management in Different Regions 3.1 Local Studies: The Ministry of Local Government is the main coordinating agency for solid waste management within the Occupied Palestinian Territories, having overall responsibility for the relevant functions of local authorities. The Regional Solid Waste Councils are responsible for the construction of solid waste plants, under the supervision of the Ministry of Local Government. The Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation is responsible for the overall planning and fund raising, while the Environmental Quality Authority is responsible for licensing of sites, environmental monitoring, provision of expertise and ensuring environmental protection. However, as a result of the current crisis and related Israeli occupation measures such as closures and curfews, these central responsibilities are largely inactive. Most of the day-to-day processing of solid waste (collection, transportation and disposal of waste, and operation and maintenance of facilities) is the responsibility of the local authorities. In larger towns and cities, this is usually the local municipality, while in smaller localities the village councils play a key role, often with coordination provided by the district authorities. Since the outbreak of the Second Intifada, the access of municipal maintenance staff to solid waste dumps has, at various times, been difficult or impossible, as a result of curfews, partial or full closures, and overall 35 worker safety and security considerations. Israeli occupation measures have also created difficulties in obtaining spare parts. Though subject to severe constraint under the prevailing conditions, local authorities continue to perform solid waste management functions. Most recycling, as far as it exists, continues to be carried out by the private sector. In the refugee camps, most solid waste collection and transport is carried out by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), using its own equipment and management procedures. UNRWA normally uses disposal sites operated by local authorities. In recent years, several regional solid waste management councils have een established, for example in northern and central Gaza, Bethlehem, Hebron, and Jenin, grouping together all municipalities, villages and rural areas in a given region into a single entity. These councils have focused mainly on developing proposals for regional waste management solutions [ARIJ, 2009]. 3.1.1 Solid waste types, composition and generation: Local surveys and estimates indicate that household waste accounts for 45-50 % of the total solid waste, with the construction and industrial sectors together constituting 20-25%, and remaining types (e.g. commercial, institutional) 25-30 % (Al-Khateeb, 2008). Hazardous material is to some extent present in all these waste types, although such material is only a significant component of industrial and 36 hospital waste. There is virtually no separation of hazardous waste, except for some limited treatment of infectious waste, for example in Jericho, Nablus, Gaza and Khan Yunis cities, and disposal of old medicines (Gaza city). Hazardous waste is mixed with municipal solid waste during both collection and disposal. There are few available data on quantities of hazardous waste. Several studies in the Occupied Palestinian Territories over the last decade have included pilot surveys and/or professional estimates of solid waste generation and composition, like: A study conducted by Al Sa'di (2009) focused on Reuse-recycling and solid waste separation options for municipal solid waste at Zahrat A- Finjan (ZF) landfill. The options that the study used are separation at source through curbside collection and drop-off centers, separation at transfer station; and separation at ZF landfill. The solid waste composition has been examined via pilot separation and the compositions are organic and food wastes, cartoon and paper, plastic, glass, metals, textile, and others. The average percentage of the organic fraction from the total waste in the different zones is 53.73%, whereas the percent of the other different components is 46.27%. These options have been managed taking into consideration the available solid waste collection, transfer and disposal systems. cost analysis for 11 years (up to 2020) for all solid waste options. The analysis included the capital and operational costs, revenues and B/C ratio has been estimated assuming the JSC approved fees; based on this study estimated fees and/or zero benefits. 37 The results show that if the percentage of the separated waste is 41%, the life time of ZF landfill will be prolonged nine years. The total lifetime of ZF landfill will be then 22 years, taking into consideration the annual increase of the population and the solid waste production. Abu Zahra (2006), conducted a study about the current solid waste management system in Nablus district, it covers the issue from three aspects. These are the management system, awareness of citizens, and solid waste composition. Around 97% of the population in Nablus district are located within areas that have a solid waste collection system. There are great variations in the management system between the city and villages, and among different villages. The collection systems in villages vary from one to another by equipment used. Insufficiency of existing labor and equipments, improper disposal of waste in dumping sites, and low fee collection rates, are the main problems in the existing management system. There is no separation of hazardous and medical waste in all localities. These practices increase threat to citizens and the environment. Different citizens’ attitudes toward solid waste management were revealed. Like, readiness of citizens to pay more for better collection system as their income increases, and the readiness of citizens living in separate houses to walk further to container than citizens living in apartments. There is a good indication about readiness of citizens to separate solid waste into five components for recycling purpose. On the other hand, there is a need to increase citizens awareness and care about solid waste management issues. The weight composition percentage of the solid waste in Nablus district is 63% organic material, 8% plastics, 3% metals, 3% glass, 10% paper and cardboard, 3% textiles 10% others and inert materials. It is clear that the 38 high portion of solid waste is organic material, as expected in developing countries. The variation in the composition between village and city is minor. The organic content is a bit higher in villages while the paper content is higher in the city. Musleh (2002), has studied the of biological treatment in the West Bank, This project highlights the major factors determining solid waste policy making in a socio-political system in transition. The case study of the West Bank focuses on the biological treatment of solid waste disposal within the solid waste policy making process. The research investigates technical, economic, and socio-institutional factors that determine biological treatment internationally. The research identifies the agencies involved in waste management, but the complexity of the internal and external forces and networks for the different actors and links for decision makers will be left for future research. Mayyaleh (2008), focused on the assessment of Household Hazardous Waste Management, a comparative study for Nablus city and its refugee camps, the study aims at studying household hazardous waste (HHW) to determine the type and the quantity of hazardous materials most commonly used at homes, the level of awareness of household heads concerning the disposal of these substances, the extent of hazardous substance-related accidents and injuries occurring at homes. It also suggests an integrated management plan for HHW taking into consideration different engineering measures for managing the HHW from the point of generation to final disposal. 39 The study dependent on questionnaire was distributed among 1300 households. Findings indicate that home products and personal care products most commonly consumed hazardous substances at homes and 17.9% of the study households have injuries, poisons and burns from accidents resulted from the use of these substances. The study also found that the level of households' awareness of hazardous substances is generally low and is in need of continuous improvement. Al Khateeb (2009), produced a study on municipal solid waste management in Jericho and Ramallah cities in the West Bank. This study assesses the technical and economic status of existing system. Two types of questionnaires were used, the first for institutional and the second for household survey. It is found that the solid waste management in the study area is not self sustaining since the overall all cost recovery from actual expenditures is 67% and 15% for Jericho and Ramallah respectively, suffering from lack of coordination, primary collection methodology is different, in Jericho it is the curb side collection, while in Ramallah it is community bin collection. A waste physical composition study was performed at two municipal solid waste disposal sites throughout the province with varying demographic and socioeconomic attributes. The results of the municipal solid waste composition survey showed the following results: the organics 40.15 % and 41.63 %, plastics 20.44% and 30.19% paper and cardboard 21.12% and 10.58%, glass 4.39% and 2.02% and metals 2.43% and 3.23% for Ramallah and Jericho respectively. Cost analysis of solid waste management for the city of Qalqilia is prepared by Hinde ( 2010). This study aims at quantifying the benefits and costs of the solid waste management options in Qalqilia city. Four options 40 were discussed for the municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal in Qalqilia city and these are: Maintaining the existing situation (The do-nothing option); constructing a transfer station and transport MSW to Zahrat Al- Finjan Sanitary Landfill in Jenin District, constructing a sanitary landfill for Qalqilia City operated by the Municipality, making partial recycling to separate the recyclable materials and partial compost generation and then transfer the remaining part of the solid waste to Zahrat Al-Finjan sanitary landfill. Solid waste disposal options for Qalqilia City were evaluated based on cost analysis, where it was found that the first option which is maintaining the existing situation (the do-nothing option) has the largest cost which is 71.1$/ton, The second option; constructing a transfer station and transport the MSW to Zahrat Al-Finjan sanitary landfill, is more economic than the first option where the cost of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is 58.7 $/ton. Making partial recycling for recyclables material and compost and transferring the remaining solid waste to Zahrat Al-Finjan sanitary landfill. The cost of MSWM can be from 45.9$/ton to 52.3$/ton. This option provides more jobs and reduces the vulnerability of groundwater and air pollution. Construction of sanitary landfill for Qalqilia City is the highest capital cost in addition to lack of the required land. 3.1.2 Solid waste service fees: Currently, the provision of solid waste collection and disposal services consumes a large portion of the budgets of the municipalities and village councils. However, the contribution through fees from the people served in general is marginal and varies from one city or village to another; many have no fees at all. Collection fee coverage in a non-conflict situation 41 is in the range of 10- 20% of the real municipal solid waste management costs. There are no disposal fees collected in the Occupied Palestinian Territories [ARIJ, 2009]. 3.1.3 Existing systems and technical status: The urban collection system is based on three systems: (a) Compacting trucks and 800-1,000 liter steel containers (mostly in the city centers). (b) Larger 5-6 m³ communal containers collected by skip-lift or roll-on trucks. (c) 800-1,000 liter steel containers emptied by tipper crane trucks. There is currently no urban door-to door collection. Smaller communities and villages normally use manual door-to-door collection combined with truck transport. Many of the trucks have been provided through various donor programs over a period of some years. As a consequence, the model of equipment varies quite widely, causing challenges for maintenance. However, the receptacle system (containers and bins) appears to have been standardized in a way that allows most trucks to collect the various containers used. In the refugee camps, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) uses 800-1,000 liter steel containers and 5-6 m³ containers collected by trucks. 42 3.1.4 Solid waste assembly, collection, transfer and transport: The existing procedures seem to be based largely on international or local professional planning, resulting in systems and equipment that are appropriate and quite modern. With a focus on serving adequately as large portion of the population as possible, while keeping costs low, key elements would usually be: • To minimize the number of truck trips to disposal sites. • To optimize the collection routing, thus minimizing the travelling distance and time. • To maximize the number of fully loaded trips to the disposal site (two trips per day should be an average minimum for trucks collecting small containers, but three or more trips would be preferable). • To utilize to the maximum extent possible the available equipment. • To provide a suitable and accessible receptacle system for the population served. With the present composition and high density of municipal solid waste, the need for compaction may be limited when the transport distance to the disposal site is short. In the short term, the existing combination of equipment will remain relevant. However, the use of small 5-6 m³ communal containers and skip- lift or roll-on trucks is not the most efficient, resulting in a high number of trips with small loads. A system of medium or large back loading 43 compacting trucks for unloading a number of containers during each trip may be more efficient. For planning purposes, one truck for every 10,000 to 20,000 inhabitants served (depending on the container system and vehicle size) would be appropriate. When gross domestic product (GDP) per capita increases, the density of the waste is reduced due to the lower content of heavy organic matter and increased content of lighter paper, plastics, and other packaging material. Consequently, as a long-term solution, compacting collection systems must be more or less the standard. Door-to-door systems, or at least additional more dispersed manual collection, could still be a relevant solution in a situation with a large unemployed workforce. This system is active (using donkeys- and hand- carts) within some town areas and where vehicle access is limited. To introduce this system in more high-income suburban areas would be dependent on the people in such areas paying fees that would fully cover the costs. The location of larger containers must take into consideration the walking distance involved. International experience indicates that this should not exceed approximately 100 m if uncontrolled local disposal is to be avoided. Furthermore, planning should be based on a collection of containers two or three times a week, depending on the season [Arij, 2009]. 3.1.5 Transfer and haulage systems: When a network of fewer disposal sites is established, the travel distances will increase, particularly in the West Bank. This will make a 44 transfer and haulage system financially and technically viable in many regions. Transfer and haulage will be increasingly viable as the number of people in the collection area increases. With the existing rather high density, compacting before haulage may not be necessary, but this must be introduced in long-term transport systems. State-of-the-art systems are already in extensive use in Israel, so regional experience is available. It is questionable whether transfer and haulage is appropriate with the short transport distances in Gaza under a non-conflict situation. Normally, transfer and haulage is not viable with average transport distances less than approximately 15 km one way. 3.1.6 Solid waste recycling: In municipal solid waste management, a principal priority is to reduce in waste generation and promote reuse, recycling, and resource recovery. Waste reduction is mainly an educational and awareness challenge and can be encouraged in most societies. In the present crisis situation, there are very few incentives for recycling in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, except for components having a potential net value through recycling. The almost complete absence of disposal fees fails to take advantage of the most common rationale for recycling, namely saving on disposal costs. The Occupied Palestinian Territories constitute a relatively small community and the industrial sector is very limited. Thus, the domestic potential is limited for industrial processing of many fractions that can potentially be recycled, and will probably continue to be so at least in the short and medium term. 45 The rationale for recycling could be pollution reduction, volume reduction, commercial use or substitution of virgin raw material. Another important aspect of recycling is that the specific costs for this go up with the increasing degree of recycling. In the Occupied Palestinian Territories, the best way to start recycling is with the fractions having a net value (metals), or those that supply a local demand (soils/compost), solve a particular problem (debris) or correspond to a domestic processing capability (metals and glass). One low-cost approach is to focus on voluntary schemes based on incentives and education. This could bring the recycling rate up to 10-12%. To be able to achieve more, mandatory schemes and higher costs must be introduced. In the Occupied Palestinian Territories, such measures will be mainly applicable to the long term. Some recycling activities previously took place in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, mainly in the private sector, and focusing on metals, glass and to some extent paper. Metals and glass were handled in Nablus and Hebron, respectively, while other fractions were brought to Israel. Car wrecks were recycled in Nablus [HWE, 2009]. In the region, the recycling industry is extensive in Israel, with some 1,100,000 tons recycled domestically in 2001, equating to a national rate of approximately 16%. In a non conflict situation, cooperation with this industry would be a natural option. There are currently some possibilities for financially viable export of certain fractions (e.g. cardboard, high- quality paper etc.) to Turkey. Egypt also has a very extensive recycling activity and it could be another option for export [HWE, 2009]. 46 One particular fraction – debris – has become a major problem in many areas owing to the destruction of buildings and infrastructure. Most of the debris is in fact inert material (concrete, bricks, plaster etc.), which could be seen as recyclable and not as waste. Such material can be used in road-building, construction foundations and landscaping, or be crushed to gravel. The challenge is to extract minor problem fractions such as reinforcement, wood etc. This may be achieved through using special cutting equipment designed for environmentally-friendly demolition. Such equipment is inexpensive and can be fitted on existing excavators. 3.2 Regional Studies: Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is one of the most serious environmental concerns in the Mashreq and Maghreb countries (the Region), especially because of its adverse effects on the quality of life, human health, natural resources, and on economic development. Population growth and increased development activities have resulted in an increased level of waste generation. All Mashreq and Maghreb countries have identified solid waste management as a national priority within their National Environmental Action Plans. Furthermore, many national solid waste strategies and programs are currently being prepared by all countries that are expressing a strong interest in furthering their efforts in tackling solid waste management in a more comprehensive and cost effective way [METAP, 2003]. Despite the considerable efforts by many countries to address the existing situation, much work is still needed to meet the challenges of improving the current management conditions. As a result. 47 Launched in January 2002, the RSWM Project, a three year initiative, aims particularly for the Mediterranean Region at: a) Providing tools to national and sub-national (i.e. regional and/or municipal) institutions to plan, design, implement, operate, and manage ISWM systems, through the preparation of development capacity modules, development of operational guidelines, and the organization of national and regional training courses. b) Promoting the exchange of information and experiences within the region in the field of solid waste management. c) Strengthening the national, municipal, and NGOs capacities and expertise. 3.2.1 SW in regional countries: A study was conducted by Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Program (METAP). (2003) regional solid waste management project. Throughout the region, it is estimated that more than 45 million tons of municipal solid waste were generated in 2010. The following table shows the wide variations in the generated waste quantities within the region. There are very significant differences in quantity depending on many factors, such as: The size of the population living in the area. The type of sources of the area (commercial, residential, touristic, industrial, etc.). The quantity of public or private gardens. 48 Whether the families living in the area are predominantly poor or rich. The season of the year. The cultural aspects of the area affecting the composition, quantity and peak-days of the solid waste produced. Table (7): Solid Waste Generation for South and East Mediterranean countries [METAP, 2003]. Region MSW Generation (million tons/year) Algeria 7.4 Egypt 20.1 Jordan 2 Lebanon 1.8 Morocco 8.8 Palestinian Authority 1.7 Syria 5.7 Tunisia 2.3 Some typical waste generation rates for low-income, middle-income and high income countries Organic waste comprises by far the highest proportion of municipal solid waste, ranging from 55-70% by weight. Plastic comprises approximately 7-10% and paper and paperboard waste comprise approximately 11-14% by weight. A wide variety of other materials is generated at lower quantities. All specified in Table (8). 49 Table (8): Solid Waste Composition for South and East Mediterranean countries [METAP, 2003]. Component Typical of Region (%) Countries outside typical region (%) Paper/ Cardboard 11-14 Lebanon 17% Israel 22% Glass 2-7 Lebanon 9% Plastic 7-10 Jordan 16% Israel 14% Metal 2-6 Component Typical of Region (%) Countries outside typical region (%) Organics 55-70 Israel 43% Fabric/ Textiles 3-5 Unspecified 2-5 Egypt 13% Israel 8% Knowing the composition of waste is important for deciding the treatment systems. Numerous factors have an influence on the composition and characteristics of solid waste: The area: residential, commercial ,etc. The season and weather (differences in the amount of population during the year, tourist places). The economic level (differences between high and low-income areas). High-income areas usually produce more inorganic materials such as plastics and paper, while low-income areas produce relatively more organic waste. The cultural aspects of the zone. Urban waste is normally divided into three major groups: Inert waste: metals, glass, soil, slags and ashes. Putrescibles: food waste and yard trimmings. 50 Combustibles: paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, tyres, leather and textiles. The status of solid waste shows two main solid waste generation trends in the region: Waste generation in the region might increase by up to 50% between 1998 and 2012. The composition of waste is changing: Global experience indicates that as economies develop, the proportion of organic materials in the waste stream decreases as packaging-related waste increase 3.2.2 Cost analysis of MSWM: A study was prepared by Abu Qdais (2006), discusses the various practices and challenges of solid waste management in Jordan from both a technical and economic perspective. An overview of the current practices and their environmental implications in three major cities of the country, which generate more than 70% of the country’s solid waste, is presented. Recent literature on solid waste management in Jordan has been reviewed; and data on the total amount of municipal solid waste generated, compositional variations over the last two decades, and future projections are presented. The necessity, importance and needs of solid waste recovery and reuse are identified. The review of the legal frameworks indicated that there is a need for detailed and clear regulations dealing specifically with solid waste. The service cost analysis revealed that none of the municipalities in Jordan sufficiently recover the cost of the services, with more than 50% 51 being subsidized from the municipalities’ budgets. The allocation of the available resources was analyzed and service performance indicators assessed. Factors that should be taken into consideration when making the decision to move from a traditional SWM approach to a more integrated approach are highlighted and suggestions for a more smooth transition are recommended. Recovery for solid waste management in Lebanon. This study talks about project financed from World Bank, the project is to promote the adoption of integrated solid waste management in the selected Mediterranean countries, among which Lebanon. The project will provide the necessary tools for designing, developing, and implementing the main elements of ISWM while promoting exchange of information and experiences within the Region in the field of solid waste management. The objectives of the project were to: 1) Develop a legal framework that supports the adoption of ISWM. 2) Implement training modules at the national and municipal level for the application and enforcement of the legal framework with focus on capacity development in supervision and monitoring contracts. 3) Develop an economic model with relevant implementing tools that assist municipal and national entities in selecting preferred SWM. 4) Assist concerned institutions in selecting and applying two of the World Bank Regional Guidelines for Solid Waste Management in METAP countries. A study prepared by ELARD (2005). The costs of waste 52 management in Lebanon like capital, operational and management costs and predicted trend of growth of revenues were estimated. Revenues from the municipal charge on the rental value of property, as well as that from the municipal charge on utility bills both fall below the minimum cost of a SWM system. Therefore, each of these two sources would not be sufficient to fulfill the cost requirements of implementing a SWM system in Lebanon. Policy and institutional assessment of solid waste management in five countries Cyprus, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia by El Jor. (2002). This study reflects the current practices, problems and planned solutions for Lebanon’s Municipal Solid Waste Management. Although industrial and hospital waste represent an important element in the country’s Solid Waste situation, they shall not be covered by this study. The aim of this study is to assess the policy and institutional frameworks for MSW management in five countries of the region, namely Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Tunisia and Cyprus. The objectives are to identify appropriate strategies and solutions for improvement based on each country’s needs and the broader political and social changes going on within that country by estimating the cost values for strategies. The outputs of this study are: 1) Resources deemed necessary to carry out the tasks of MSW management are various but are here mostly designated as both Human and Financial and neither are available to the authorities mandated to manage MSW. 53 2) The Beirut Emergency Program that is currently carried out by the Sukkar Group is running into financial problems due to the high costs incurred for the purpose of running an operation by international standards. The local governments’ sources of revenues that would be partly used to finance the MSW management are the municipal revenues consisting of: a) 11% municipal tax on rental values, and proceeds from land sales and construction permits that are collected directly by the municipalities (direct taxes). b) A share of the revenues collected by the Central Government (10% surcharge on telephone, electricity and water bills, and duties on imports, liquor and fuel) and distributed to the municipalities on the basis of their registered population and size of the spent previous year’s budget. However, the flow of these revenues was severely affected during the civil strives years leaving the municipalities with an eroded resource base. Currently, due to governmental budgetary constraints, municipalities cannot depend on transfers from the Independent Municipal Fund, but rather on ad-hos advances from the Central Government just to meet priority needs. 3.3 Worldwide Studies: Managing solid waste is one of biggest challenges of the urban areas of all sizes, from mega-cities to the small towns and large villages, which are the home to the majority of humankind. It is almost always in the top five of the most challenging problems for city managers. It is somewhat 54 strange that it receives so little attention compared to other urban management issues. The quality of waste management services is a good indicator of a city’s governance. The way in which waste is produced and discarded gives us a key insight into how people live. In fact if a city is dirty, the local administration may be considered ineffective or its residents may be accused of littering (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Good solid waste management system is like good health: if you are lucky to have it, you don’t notice it; it is just how things are, and you take it for granted. On the other hand, if things go wrong, it is a big and urgent problem and everything else seems less important (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Managing solid waste well and affordably is one of the key challenges of the 21st century, and one of the key responsibilities of a city government. It may not be the biggest vote-winner, but it has the capacity to become a full-scale crisis, and a definite vote-loser, if things go wrong. 3.3.1 Solid Waste Management Techniques A Sustainable Waste Management Techniques were studied by Taiwo, (2010). Attaining sustainability in waste management requires an option that employs environmental friendliness. Such a technique must be effective, efficient and less costly than many options. The techniques are: landfill (open dumping sites, sanitary landfills and secured landfills), incineration, pyrolysis and gasification, composting and anaerobic digestion. He shows the environmental effects and benefits of these techniques and the costs considerations. The study shows that the composting technique is more suitable option of solid waste management because it is cheap, environmentally friendly, wealth creating and 55 sustainable. This action will lead to waste reduction at landfill, job creation and production of organically produced food crops. Organic agriculture has continued to gain more ground all over the world for its sustainability and safety of the farm produce. The economic and environmental evaluation of waste treatment and disposal technologies for municipal solid waste were studied by Daskalopoulos et al. (1998). This study reviews the main economic costs and the environmental impacts of the widely- accepted waste treatment and disposal methods. Three basic alternatives for MSW disposal were discussed: direct dumping of unprocessed waste in sanitary landfills, processing of the waste before final disposal and processing of the waste to recover resources "material and/or energy" with subsequent disposal of the residues. The process, environmental impacts, operational factors, examples of successful waste management schemes were presented and future trends were assessed. Municipal solid waste (domestic and commercial) options are discussed, these options are landfilling of the waste, waste incineration with or without energy recovery and recycling or composting the relevant fractions of the waste streams. The factors that influencing recycling programs are: technical limitations, level of public participations, markets for recycled products and economic viability of recycling operation. Municipal solid waste management was defined as the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing and disposal of MSW, in a way which is governed by the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations. 56 Renkow and Rubin (1998) investigated if municipal solid waste composting make economic sense. The article claims that there is little information on the costs of MSW composting and how those costs compare with the costs of alternative forms of waste disposal (especially traditional land disposal). The article reported the results of a survey of 19 MSW composting facilities around the United States. Results indicated that MSW composting generally costs around $50 per ton, and that very few facilities receive any revenues from the sale of compost to offset operating costs. Additional economic analysis indicates that, at present, MSW composting cannot be justified on financial grounds in most parts of the US, but may be competitive with land disposal where the cost of landfillling is high (such as the north-east). Municipal solid waste composting technologies, surveys results, compost uses, costs of MSW composting, and comparison between the MSW composting and the land disposal were discussed in this paper. Emery (2007) prepare