An-Najah National University 

Faculty of Graduate Studies 

 

POTENTIAL SOURCES AND MITIGATION 
MEASURES FOR NITRATE 

CONTAMINATION USING GIS AND 
GROUNDWATER VULNERABILITY 

ANALYSIS: A CASE STUDY OF YABAD 
EASTREN WELL (PALESTINE) 

 

 

By 

Ahmad Asaf Mohammad Asaf 

 

 

 

Supervisor 

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri 

 

This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of 
Master of Water and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah 

National University, Nablus - Palestine. 

2025 





III 
 

Dedication 

To my beloved family: my wife, Lina, whose unwavering support and love have been 

the cornerstone of my strength; my sons, Omar and Zain, and my daughters, Jawa and 

Ward, whose smiles and encouragement have been my greatest motivation throughout 

this journey. 

To my dearest mother and father, whose sacrifices, prayers, and endless love have 

shaped the person I am today. To my cherished brother and sisters, who have always 

stood by my side with encouragement and belief in my abilities. 

To my esteemed supervisor, Dr. Mohammad Almasri, whose guidance, patience, and 

wisdom have been invaluable in shaping this thesis. 

Each of you has played an irreplaceable role in this achievement. This milestone is as 

much yours as it is mine. 

With deepest gratitude and heartfelt appreciation. 



IV 
 

Acknowledgements 

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Mohammad Almasri, 

for his invaluable guidance, insightful feedback, and continuous encouragement 

throughout my research journey. His expertise and support have been instrumental in 

shaping this thesis and helping me overcome challenges along the way. 

My heartfelt thanks go to Dr. Subhi Smhan, Engineer Sael Weshahi, Engineer Omar 

Zyad, Engineer Bilal Alshayb, and Mr. Amjad Atatri and Mr.Rabe’ Abu Baker from 

Yabad Municipality for their generous assistance, technical expertise, and valuable 

contributions. Their support has greatly enriched this work and helped bring it to 

completion. 

I am deeply appreciative of An-Najah National University for providing an outstanding 

academic environment and the resources necessary for conducting this research. I would 

like to extend my gratitude to the dedicated staff of my department, whose 

professionalism and support have been a cornerstone of my academic progress. 

I sincerely appreciate the generous funding provided by the Middle East Desalination 

Research Center (MEDRC), which has been essential in supporting this research on 

groundwater protection. Their contribution has significantly facilitated data collection, 

analysis, and complete this research. 

To all who have contributed to this accomplishment, your efforts, encouragement, and 

belief in my abilities have been invaluable, and I will always remain deeply thankful. 





VI 
 

List of Contents 

Dedication ....................................................................................................................... III 

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... IV 

Declaration ....................................................................................................................... V 

List of Contents ............................................................................................................... VI 

List of Table ................................................................................................................. VIII 

List of Figure .................................................................................................................. IX 

Appendices ....................................................................................................................... X 

Abstract ........................................................................................................................... XI 

Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 

1.1 The importance of study………………….. ............................................................... 3 

1.2 Objectives………………… ....................................................................................... 5 

1.3 Research Questions………………… ......................................................................... 5 

1.4 Description of study area ……………….. ................................................................. 6 

1.4.1 General Description ................................................................................................. 6 

1.4.2 Land Use .................................................................................................................. 7 

1.4.3 Communities around the study area ......................................................................... 8 

1.4.4 Geological Formations ............................................................................................. 8 

1.4.5 Groundwater Direction .......................................................................................... 10 

1.4.6 History of Contamination of Yabad Eastern Well ................................................. 12 

1.5 Literature review………………… ........................................................................... 14 

1.5.1 Health of impact of nitrate pollution of water ....................................................... 14 

1.5.2 Nitrate pollution of groundwater worldwide ......................................................... 15 

1.5.3 Vulnerability assessment for aquifer ..................................................................... 22 

Chapter Two: Methodology ............................................................................................ 25 

2.1 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 25 

2.2 Data Collection ......................................................................................................... 27 

2.3 Yabad Eastern Well Data .......................................................................................... 27 

2.4 Aquifer and surrounding environment ...................................................................... 28 

2.5 Tests were conducted on wells located within the study area .................................. 29 

Chapter Three: Analysis and results ............................................................................... 32 

3.1 Aquifer boundaries ................................................................................................... 33 



VII 
 

3.2 Groundwater flow direction ...................................................................................... 35 

3.3 Groundwater recharge area ....................................................................................... 38 

3.4 Vulnerability assessment of aquifer .......................................................................... 38 

3.5 Hydrogeologic Setting .............................................................................................. 41 

3.5.1 The Upper aquifer system (Turonian-Upper Cenomanian) ................................... 42 

3.5.2 Bethlehem Formation ............................................................................................ 42 

3.5.3 Hebron Formation .................................................................................................. 42 

3.5.4 Lower Aquifer System ........................................................................................... 43 

3.5.5 G-parameter ........................................................................................................... 43 

3.5.6 O-parameter ........................................................................................................... 44 

3.5.7 D-parameter ........................................................................................................... 44 

3.6 Vulnerability Classification and Spatial Distribution ............................................... 48 

3.7 Overlap of Land Use, Flow Direction, and Vulnerability ........................................ 48 

3.8 The influence area of the Yabad Eastern Well ......................................................... 51 

3.9 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 53 

Chapter Four: Conclusions and recommendations ......................................................... 55 

4.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 55 

4.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 57 

4.3 Recommendations and Management Practices ......................................................... 57 

List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... 59 

References ....................................................................................................................... 60 

Appendices ..................................................................................................................... 64 

 ب ............................................................................................................................... الملخص 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



VIII 
 

List of Table 

Table 1: Summary of Lithology in Yabad Eastern Well .................................................. 9 

Table 2: Existing Wells around Yabad Eastern Well ..................................................... 11 

Table 3: Nitrate concentrations in wells within study area ............................................. 31 

Table 4: Data of wells within study area ........................................................................ 36 

Table 5: G- parameter assumed values ........................................................................... 44 

Table 6: O- parameter assumed values ........................................................................... 44 

Table 7: D parameter value ............................................................................................. 45 

Table 8: Practical definition of classes of aquifer pollution vulnerability ...................... 47 

Table 9: Vulnerability index, land use, pollution source and type of contaminant ........ 50 

Table 10: Data related to Yabad Eastern Well " testing data"(33) ................................. 53 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 



IX 
 

List of Figure 

Figure 1: Common processes and sources of groundwater pollution (7) ......................... 2 

Figure 2: Yabad Town Location ....................................................................................... 6 

Figure 3: Hydraulic gradient and groundwater flow direction for Yabad Eastern Well 12 

Figure 4: Nitrate Concentration VS Time for Yabad Eastern Well ................................ 13 

Figure 5: Research methodology .................................................................................... 27 

Figure 6: Nitrate concentrations in wells within study area ........................................... 33 

Figure 7: GOD system for evaluation of aquifer pollution vulnerability (7) .................. 39 

Figure 8: Discrete map into elements by using contour line to create buffer zone, G, O, 

D - parameters and GOD index ...................................................................... 46 

Figure 9: Overlapping map for factors effect on Yabad Eastern Well ........................... 49 

Figure 10: A drawdown curve for a typical confined aquifer. ........................................ 51 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



X 
 

Appendices  

Appendix A :Tables ........................................................................................................ 64 

Table A 1: GOD Index .............................................................................................. 64 

Appendix B: Figures ....................................................................................................... 74 

Figure B 1: Topography of yabad town ...................................................................... 74 

Figure B 2: Land use and practices in Yabad town .................................................... 75 

Figure B 3: Land use and buildings in Yabad town .................................................... 75 

Figure B 4: Agriculture land value for Yabad town ................................................... 76 

Figure B 5: Geological formation classification according to age for the aquifer. ..... 76 

Figure B 6: Surface geological formations of Yabad town ........................................ 77 

Figure B 7: Generalized stratigraphic of the west bank .............................................. 78 

Figure B 8: Main groundwater Basins in West Bank (12) .......................................... 79 

Figure B 9: Groundwater basin boundaries ................................................................ 79 

Figure B 10: Yabad Eastern Well location with reference to groundwater boundaries

 .............................................................................................................. 80 

Figure B 11: Hydraulic head level and contours map ................................................. 81 

Figure B 12: Component of groundwater protection (7) ............................................ 81 

Figure B 13: Import wells data to ArcGIS .................................................................. 82 

Figure B 14: Create raster image by using interpolation in ArcGIS ........................... 83 

Figure B 15: Contour line for head water ................................................................... 83 

Figure B 16: Tin layer of study area ........................................................................... 84 

Figure B 17: Flow direction raster layer ..................................................................... 84 

Figure B 18: Resample flow direction layer ............................................................... 85 

Figure B 19: ArcGIS direction codes .......................................................................... 85 

Figure B 20: Groundwater flow direction ................................................................... 86 

Figure B 21: Recharge areas ....................................................................................... 86 

Figure B 22: Generation of aquifer pollution vulnerability map using GOD system (7)

 .............................................................................................................. 87 

 

 

 



XI 
 

POTENTIAL SOURCES AND MITIGATION MEASURES FOR 

NITRATE CONTAMINATION USING GIS AND GROUNDWATER 

VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS: A CASE STUDY OF YABAD 

EASTREN WELL (PALESTINE) 

By 

Ahmad Asaf Mohammad Asaf 

Supervisor 

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri 

Abstract 

The main source of fresh water for Palestinians is groundwater. Monitoring and 

evaluating its quantity and quality are essential. Recent research has shown that the 

nitrate contamination of the Eocene Aquifer's (EA) continues to trend upward. High 

fertilizer use, wastewater seepage are the main cause of nitrate contamination of 

groundwater. The problem has appeared in Yabad Eastern Well, where the nitrate 

concentration exceeds the allowable limit according to World Health Organization 

(WHO) and Palestinian guidelines. This research aims to identify the source of nitrate 

contamination for the well and to recommend the most relevant management options. 

 It is important to understand this problem by employing the proper methodology. The 

methodology consists of five steps, starting with studying the historical nitrate 

contamination of the well. Samples taken from the surrounding wells show that the 

nitrate concentration is below the Maximum Contamination Level (MCL), and this 

indicated that the problem had been limited to the well. The study area relevant to the 

well was determined based on many considerations in order to figure out the 

contamination occurrence.  The research analyzed the groundwater flow direction to 

determine upstream and downstream areas using ArcGIS. The vulnerability of 

groundwater to contamination was identified to determine the potential locations of 

access for the contaminants to aquifer. The assessment of vulnerability was done by 

using the Geology, Overlying materials, Depth to groundwater (GOD) method. 



XII 
 

By evaluating the variables affecting contamination at the well, different layers were 

overlaid. Each layer represents a specific variable, such as groundwater flow direction, 

vulnerability, and land use. This process helped identify the areas most exposed to 

contamination. Activities in these areas were classified based on their potential to 

pollute the aquifer with nitrate. The contamination pathways were also analyzed.  

The results show that the old town was the most vulnerable location within the study 

area. This area suffers from high population and poor sewer system. Finally, this 

research recommends establishing a sewer network. This research suggests utilizing the 

isotopic method for future studies related to this case to better track the contamination 

sources for Yabad Eastern Well. 

Keywords: Nitrate contamination, aquifer, groundwater, flow direction, GOD method, 

vulnerability. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



1 
 

Chapter One 
Introduction 

Groundwater is a priceless resource of drinking water that is used for domestic 

utilization, industrial activities, as well as agriculture. It is commonly of good quality as 

compared to other water resources due to filtration in soil and depth to water table (1). 

The groundwater is the only source of drinking water and irrigation in Yabad Town 

which is considered a semi-arid area. This groundwater source is recharged by 

infiltration due to the rainfall. It is important to keep and save this natural source from 

any contamination which may come from the ground surface. So, monitoring the water 

quality is essential by doing periodic water tests. 

Water can be contaminated by microbiological, physical, and chemical pollutants, each 

of which is related to different sources and health-associated issues and results(2). 

Microbiological contamination of water sources is mainly caused by the improper 

disposal of animal and human wastes, giving rise to waterborne diseases (3). Coliforms 

in drinking water indicate possible contamination by pathogens causing waterborne 

diseases (4). Pathogenic microorganisms in water might cause waterborne illness such 

as typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, and respiratory system infections, as well as eye and skin 

diseases (5). The chemical contamination of water is divided into organic and inorganic. 

Elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia in 

infants and stomach cancer in adults. They originate from domestic wastewater, solid 

waste leachate, industrial wastewater, and agricultural runoff. Organic chemicals like 

chlorinated compounds are linked to cancer, toxicity, and kidney and liver diseases. 

Inorganic substances, such as Boron (B), Cadmium (Cd), Molybdenum (Mo), Mercury 

(Hg), and Barium (Ba), may cause several diseases such as, hypertension, cancer, 

poisoning, and babyish cyanosis. The last is linked with the toxicity of nitrate (6). High 

levels of water hardness might lead to kidney stone formation (2).  

One of the most common contaminants is nitrate. Its existence in water gives indicators 

for contamination in groundwater due to human-induced activities or agricultural 

activities. 



2 
 

 In general, this leads to major changes in the nitrogen cycle, leading to an increase in 

nitrate content level (MCL) of 50 mg/l NO3-N (Maximum limit of Nitrate according to 

World Health organization (WHO)). 

 Point sources, such as municipal and industrial discharge pipes where pollutants reach 

the water supply, are easily identifiable sources or locations of contamination. Non-

point sources of contamination include acid rain, agricultural runoff, and other 

situations where it is difficult to pinpoint the exact source of the contamination. This has 

gradually led to serious non-point sources of groundwater contamination. Also, another 

contamination causes an increase in the nitrate content of groundwater in developing 

countries due to a lack of proper sanitation facilities. Figure 1 illustrates common 

potential sources contributing to groundwater pollution, showing various sources of 

contaminants infiltrating the subsurface. Key sources include solid waste landfills, 

industrial site drainage, leaking storage tanks, farmyard drainage, wastewater lagoons, 

and agricultural intensification. The most common potential cause of in-situ sanitation 

issues is wastewater seepage directly into the soil from sanitation systems like pit 

latrines or septic tanks. When poorly managed, these systems can contaminate 

surrounding groundwater with pathogens, nitrates, and other pollutants, posing serious 

risks to drinking water quality and public health. 

Figure 1  

Common processes and sources of groundwater pollution (7) 

 
The Yabad Eastern Well is a vital water source for the residents of Yabad village, 

supplying approximately 60% of the village's residents. The water quality tests in 2022 

show high concentration of Nitrate in the well (106 mg/l). This result is considered very 



3 
 

dangerous and alarming and induces water service providers to make more 

investigations to identify contamination cause and sources. 

1.1 The importance of study 

The importance of this study is that it identifies the potential contamination sources that 

may increase the nitrate concentration in groundwater. It finds suitable solutions for this 

problem in order to protect this resource. Yabad Eastern Well is regarded by the 

residents of Yabad Town as a vital source of water, covering most of their water needs. 

Determination of the source of nitrate contamination in Yabad Eastern Well is vital to 

protect the water supply of 13,000 capita. This study helps determine the pollution 

sources, whether from agricultural, wastewater, or other activities, helping focus 

minimize efforts. By determination of contamination at its origin, the study helps the 

protection of potable water resource. 

After finding that the nitrate concentration in the Yabad Eastern Well was higher than 

permitted by Palestinian drinking water guidelines, PWA closed the well as a precaution 

in order to protect the residents of Yabad from any negative effects of the 

contamination. Water supply problems, public anxiety, and confusion are all results of 

this preventive procedure, requiring for real action regarding. 

The determination of nitrate contamination sources in groundwater is the purpose of 

research, especially when considering its effect on health and water resource 

sustainability. Groundwater sources consider one of the primary source of drinking 

water for residents in Palestine. Nitrate contamination cause serious risks to health, 

especially for weakness people like infants and pregnant women, as elevated nitrate 

levels which exceed MCL can cause to severe cases like methemoglobinemia, 

commonly known as "blue baby syndrome."(7) 

Understanding the sources of nitrate contamination is very important for finding 

effective mitigation methods and protecting the drinking water. Nitrates often came 

from agricultural uses, including the use of fertilizers and animal waste. Additionally, 

poor systems of domestic wastewater and industrial effluents can influence nitrate 

pollution in groundwater. The Yabad village, like many other areas with high 

agricultural activities, is especially vulnerable to this sort of pollution. To deal with the 



4 
 

root reasons of contamination and ensure the drinking water supply's permanent safety, 

it is vital to identify the exact sources of nitrates in the Yabad Eastern Well. 

The importance of this research also extends to more general environmental and 

resource management objectives. Nitrate contamination of groundwater can reduce the 

aquifer's capacity to supply clean water for coming generations, increasing the need for 

expensive and alternative water sources. Additionally, nitrate contamination may 

disturb the aquatic ecosystems' natural harmony, leading to problems like pollution in 

surrounding surface water basins.  

This study contributes to the sustainable management of groundwater resources in the 

Yabad area by identifying the sources of contamination and preventing the spread of 

pollutants to connected hydrological systems. 

The study's purpose of raising awareness among stakeholders, including local 

government representatives, citizens, and lawmakers, is an additional essential aspect. 

The study can motivate action and encourage the adoption of suitable land-use 

practices, waste management systems, and water quality monitoring systems by 

highlighting the risks of nitrate contamination and the significance of protecting 

groundwater. 

 Since locals have a vital role in implementing methods that minimize pollution and 

protect the well, community engagement is essential to reaching these objectives. 

The research is important locally, but it also gives light on the larger challenges related 

to managing groundwater in agricultural areas and residential areas too. It functions as a 

case study that can guide comparable initiatives in other regions dealing with nitrate 

contamination problems. The research's methods and conclusions can be used in other 

areas with similar hydrogeological and socioeconomic circumstances, adding to the 

body of knowledge on groundwater contamination and protection worldwide. 

In addition to providing drinking water, the Yabad Eastern Well is a vital resource for 

the community it serves. Making sure it is sustainable and of high quality is important 

for protecting the environment and regional development in addition to public health.  



5 
 

By the identification of nitrate contamination sources, this study establishes the 

foundation for specific treatments that might maintain or enhance the water quality of 

the well. The dependent relationship of resource management, environmental health, 

and human activity is also emphasized, underlining the necessity of integrated strategies 

for addressing the complicated issues of groundwater contamination. In summary, the 

investigation into the source of nitrate contamination in the Yabad Eastern Well is 

essential because it directly affects resource management, environmental sustainability, 

and public health. To ensure both the wellness and health of the community, the Yabad 

Eastern Well, which provides the main source of drinking water for Yabad's citizens, 

needs to be protected against contamination. A useful effort with large effects, this 

research not only addresses current issues but also advances the more general objectives 

of environmentally friendly groundwater management. 

1.2 Objectives 

The objectives are to:  

1. Identify the sources of the nitrate contamination of Yabad Eastern Well. 

2. Propose mitigation measures to protect the well from nitrate contamination. 

1.3 Research Questions 

The research aims to answer the following questions:   

1. Why does the nitrate level exceed the maximum contamination level (MCL) in 

Yabad Eastern Well? 

2. Which kind of pollutant point or non-point sources have the potential to raise the 

nitrate level? 

3. What land use activities took place inside the well capture zone that could produce 

this elevated nitrate concentration in the well? 

4. How can we minimize the nitrate contamination and protect the well in future? 

 

 



6 
 

1.4 Description of study area 

1.4.1 General Description 

Yabad Town is located in the South-West of Jenin Governorate 17 km from Jenin City. 

Figure 1 shows the location of Yabad Town. It has an average elevation of 375 m 

Above Sea Level (asl). The topography of Yabad varies between plain and elevated 

areas. The plain areas mostly are agricultural lands, while the elevated lands are 

residential. Figure B 1 shows the topography of Yabad Town. 

Yabad Town's landscape includes several sloping places that drain rainwater to Wadi Al 

Nus. However, the town's poor stormwater drainage system makes this a problem. 

Figure 2  

Yabad Town Location 

 

Yabad has a population of 21794 capita as of 2023 according to the Palestinian Central 

Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). The climate is moderate and rainy in winter, and hot and 

dry in summer. The annual average maximum temperature is 25℃ and the annual 

average minimum temperature is 14℃. The mean annual rainfall in the town is around 

450 mm (8)(PCBS).  

 



7 
 

1.4.2 Land Use  

The land in Yabad Town has the following main uses: residential, agricultural, rock-

minning, and coal manufacturing. The last one was ended by the government due to 

environmental negative consequences. Figure B 2 shows land use practices in Yabad 

Town. 

Old town and modern town are two categories for the residential areas. The majority of 

the town's older buildings are located in the center; considering their poor facilities and 

closeness to each other, Yabad Town's sewage system is poor, as they use cesspits.  

Figure B3 shows the building distribution in Yabad Town. 

Olive trees and tobacco plants are the most common crops in the agricultural areas. 

Nevertheless, in order for the tobacco plants to have a high yield, they require more 

water and fertilizers. Most of the high-value agricultural land is planted with tobacco 

plants. Figure B4 shows the agricultural areas in Yabad Town. Northeast of Yabad 

Town is the center of rock mining, one of the most widespread land uses. Different 

byproducts are produced by this activity, including aggregates, sand, crash stones for 

pavement, and occasionally boulders, which are raw materials required for building 

gravity walls. 

Because the deep excavation and cutting operations affect the area's geological 

formation, this activity has a high negative environmental impact. Excavation can affect 

the natural hydrological cycle and lead to groundwater contamination (9). If suitable 

measures are not taken to prevent the infiltration of pollutants into the groundwater, 

such as chemicals from construction materials or machinery, Infiltration pollutants from 

construction materials and machinery include various chemicals that can harm the 

environment. Construction materials like paints, adhesives, and sealants release volatile 

organic compounds such as benzene, asbestos, lead, cement dust, polychlorinated 

biphenyls, and phthalates are also common pollutants in building materials. Machinery 

used on construction sites emits exhaust pollutants like nitrogen oxides, carbon 

monoxide, and particulate matter, while hydraulic fluids may leak chemicals such as 

petroleum-based oils and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Additionally, solvents and 

heavy metals like cadmium and copper from machinery can contaminate the soil, water, 

and air, posing environmental and health risks. it can result in contamination of 



8 
 

groundwater. In addition, deep excavation can alter the natural flow of groundwater by 

changing underground water pathways and aquifer recharge patterns. This alteration can 

lead to changes in groundwater levels, which can affect nearby wells, springs, and 

wetlands (9). 

1.4.3 Communities around the study area 

Many communities surround Yabad Town. However, the focus of this study will be on 

the villages near Yabad's Eastern Well. 

The communities of Tura, Al Riyad and Nazlet Zeid are near the target well and might 

have an impact because, as Figure 2 illustrates, their locations are close and higher in 

elevation than the Yabad Eastern Well location. These villages depend on cesspits for 

their wastewater disposal, since they lack sewer networks.  

1.4.4 Geological Formations 

The most important variable that directly affects any aquifer contamination is the 

geological formation (10). As shown in Figure B 5, the Yabad Eastern Well lies within 

the Senonian formation. Studying the well's geological formation, land use, and 

activities located within protection zone is therefore essential. A protection zone for a 

well is a designated area around a water well where activities are managed or restricted 

to prevent groundwater contamination. It typically consists of three zones: the 

immediate zone near the well (strictly restricted), an intermediate zone (controlled land 

use), and an outer zone (broader catchment area for sustainable practices). These zones 

safeguard water quality by regulating activities like waste disposal, chemical use, and 

industrial processes to ensure a clean and reliable water supply (11). 

The Yabad Eastern Well is located on the outcrops of chalks and chert rocks of the Abu 

Dis formation, which cover parts of the western boundary of the Northeastern Basin. 

Figure B 6 shows the generalized geologic map and major geologic structures of the 

West Bank  (12). The geologic formations underlying the Abu Dis formation are a 

sequence of thick, existing beds of limestone, dolomitic limestone, marls, and marly 

limestone of the Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron, Yatta and Upper Beit Kahil formations. 

A generalized stratigraphic section of the West Bank is shown in Figure B 7 (13). At the 

Yabad well location, the chalks and cherts of the Abu Dis formation are found at the 



9 
 

ground surface, and the upper Beit Kahil Formation is found at the bottom of the well 

(see Table 1) (14). The Abu Dis and Yatta formations confine the Bethlehem and 

Hebron formations, which form the upper aquifer system in the Northeastern Basin. The 

Upper Beit Kahil is the lower aquifer system. 

The target aquifer of the Yabad Eastern Well is composed of the Upper Cenomanian 

(Bethlehem and Hebron formations) the Bethlehem Formation consists of limestone, 

dolomite and calcite bands. It also contains dolomite alternating with calcitic limestone 

and Marly and chalky limestone. 

The Hebron Formation is the lower unit of the Upper Aquifer System. It consists of 

limestone that is dolomitic and calcitic, with marly intercalations. The dolomitic 

limestone is brown to gray, thin bedded, densely crystalline, and well jointed.  

The well also taps the lower Cenomanian (Upper Beit Kahil Formation). The regional 

groundwater flow in the Northeastern Basin is to north – northeast and ultimately drains 

to Al Nus Valley. The depth to static water level in Yabad Eastern Well was measured 

at 253 meters below ground surface after well construction (14). 

Table 1  

Summary of Lithology in Yabad Eastern Well 

Period Age 
Graphic 

Color 

Formation (West 

Bank) 

Terminology 

Hydro-

stratigraphy 

Typical 

Thickness 

(m) 

Yabad 

Eastern 

Well 

Thickness 

C
re

ta
ce

ou
s 

Se
no

ni
an

 

  Abu Dis Aquitard 200-450 0-52 

Tu
ro

ni
an

 

  Jerusalem 

Upper Aquifer 

40-120 52-106 

U
pp

er
 

C
en

om
an

ia
n   

Bethlehem 30-115 106-220 

Hebron 105-260 220-305 

Lo
w

er
 

C
en

om
an

ia
n 

  

Yatta Aquitard 50-150 305-385 

Upper Beit Kaheil 
Lower Aquifer 

10-150 385-500 

Lower Biet Kahil 10-160 0 

Yabad Eastern Well Depth (m) = 500 



10 
 

According to the Yabad Eastern Well profile shown in Table 1 and Figure B 6, we note 

that the well is located within Abu Dis and Khan Al Ahmar geological formations 

which are classified as confining layers (Aquitard). In the Northern West Bank, the 

lithological facies of the upper Yatta formation exhibit increased dolomitization, 

resulting in the upper and lower aquifer systems merging into a single aquifer unit with 

a consistent water level across the area (Eng Sayel Weshahi, personal communication, 

10 March 2024). 

1.4.5 Groundwater Direction 

Understanding the direction of groundwater flow helps in predicting the movement of 

pollutants in aquifers. Through the movement of groundwater, contaminants can spread 

in all directions, affecting groundwater quality (15). 

The sources of contamination can be identified by following the route of groundwater 

flow within the aquifer. This is necessary to eliminate the source of pollution, put 

remediation strategies into operation and prevent further contamination. 

The Northeastern Basin's regional groundwater flow eventually flows into the Al Nus 

Valley in a north-northeast direction.  

There are three major groundwater basins within Palestine's groundwater aquifers: the 

Northeastern, Western, and Eastern basins. The Yabad Eastern Well is located between 

the northeastern basin and the western basin, as indicated by Figure B 8. It is possible to 

draw a hydraulic head contour map based on the wells summarized in Table 2.



11 
 

Table 2  

Existing Wells around Yabad Eastern Well 

Well (confind/Unconfind)

1 Eastern Yabad Well 16-20/006 167003 205764.9 270 265 5 
NE (Upper & 

Lower) 
North 

Eastern 
 

2 
New Yabad Well 

(Western) 
--- 164623.9 204923.3 300 265 35 NE 

North 

Eastern 
550 

3 Kiferiat Well 17-20/053 170849.2 205076.8 255 295 -40 NE 
North 

Eastern 
700 

4 
Arrabeh Well New 

Arrabeh 
17-20/051A 171366.6 201147.2 266 255 11 NE 

North 

Eastern 
405 

5 Well (Mardawi) 16-20/007 168398.1 201068.6 285 266 19 NE 
North 

Eastern 
410 

 



12 
 

Figure 3 

 Hydraulic gradient and groundwater flow direction for Yabad Eastern Well 

 

It can be concluded that the Yabad Eastern Well is part of the Northeastern Well, and 

the groundwater flow direction is moving from southwest to northeast as shown in 

Figure 3 

1.4.6 History of Contamination of Yabad Eastern Well 

It is essential to understand the history of contamination in the aquifer and the well. 

This provides an indication regarding the start of the problem. By knowing when the 

problem started, it is possible to look into and search for the improper practices that 

happened based on the problem appearance data. 

Based on the information shown in Figure 4, it appears that nitrate pollution for Yabad 

Eastern Well has become an issue for the last five years. According to Palestinian 

guidelines for the Ministry of Health (MoH), the highest allowable level of nitrate 

concentration is 70 mg/l, although the World Health Organization (WHO) limits it 50 

mg/l. The issue first surfaced in 2019 when the concentration went beyond the 

Palestinian guidelines. 

By drawing the nitrate concentration versus date, we can see that the nitrate 

concentration exceeds the MCL in September 2021, which indicates the start of 

problem.  



13 
 

Figure 4  

Nitrate Concentration VS Time for Yabad Eastern Well 

 

A serious environmental problem that has significant effects on water quality and 

human health is nitrate contamination in Palestine's Eocene aquifer. Due to a variety of 

human activities, the aquifer a vital groundwater resource for residential, industrial, and 

agricultural purposes is facing increasing nitrate levels. 

The widespread use of chemical and organic fertilizers leads to significant nitrate 

loading, which is one of the main causes of nitrate contamination in the agricultural 

sector. Untreated sewage and poorly maintained wastewater systems make the issue 

worse by letting nitrogen compounds leak into the aquifer. Additionally, urban and 

industrial activities, especially in highly populated areas contribute to the 

contamination. 

Ammonia is the most common form of fertilizer in the region; it can seep into the 

aquifer and change into nitrates. It is predicted that large volumes of nitrate leak into 

groundwater each year, reducing its quality and affecting ecosystems and human health. 

According to spatial analysis, areas close to urban centers and agricultural zones where 

nitrogen sources are concentrated have higher levels of contamination. The situation 

shows the vulnerability the Eocene aquifer is to pollution, highlighting the urgent need 

to reduce nitrate leaks and protect this essential source of drinking water. To stop 

additional degradation, this requires controlling runoff from agriculture, enhancing 

wastewater treatment, and keeping a check on groundwater quality. Consumers are 



14 
 

extremely concerned about the safety of their drinking water because of the toxic 

nitrates in the Yabad Eastern Well. Many people have turned to buying bottled water 

out of concern for possible adverse effects on health, which has put extra pressure on 

already financially challenged homes. Increasing stress and a shortage of confidence in 

the local water supply's quality are reflected in this improvement. Furthermore, the 

contamination is increasing the municipality's and the Palestinian Water Authority's 

responsibilities, putting pressure on them to deal with the problem, keep a check on the 

water quality, and come up with sustainable solutions to ensure the community's access 

to safe drinking water. 

1.5 Literature review 

The widespread problem of nitrate contamination in groundwater has drawn attention 

from researchers, requiring a thorough investigation of its many impacts on human 

health as well as the environment. 

The purpose of the previous studies was to acquire the necessary knowledge in this field 

and find solutions to ensure the continuous preservation of this resource. As a result, 

evaluation has to be predicated on quantity as well as quality and how the two interact.  

1.5.1 Health of impact of nitrate pollution of water 

A greater percentage of the world's population depends on groundwater as their main 

supply of water for daily requirements. The effects of groundwater pollution are 

becoming a major concern for livestock and the public health community. In particular, 

consuming contaminated water can have a negative impact on health, thus it's essential 

to determine whether groundwater is suitable for human consumption. All the 

contaminations, nitrate (NO3 -) pollution is the most common environmental crisis, 

with two different sources: natural and man-made. Groundwater nitrate pollution is 

mostly caused by excessive anthropogenic loading, which includes home organic and 

inorganic waste, pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture, and leaks in sewage 

systems (16). 

Ramalingam et al. gathered 40 groundwater samples, during the monsoon season and 

the principal ions were examined in a lab for South India region. The specific objective 

of this research is to evaluate the health risk to humans caused by groundwater 



15 
 

contaminated with nitrates, which is consumed continuously by people of different ages 

(16). 

According to the Unites States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), nitrate 

concentrations over 45 mg/L have the potential to seriously harm human health. It 

created a model to assess the effects of nitrate injections using two different methods: 

oral and thermal. The human population has been divided into six groups for this study: 

under six months, five to ten years, ten to fifteen years, fifteen to twenty years, twenty 

to sixty years, and over sixty years. The study shows that Continuous ingestion of 

groundwater containing high concentrations of nitrate can have detrimental 

consequences on humans of all ages (16). 

Ward et al. study focusing on the relationship between nitrate concentration in drinking 

water and human health in America and Europe by reviewing more than 30 

epidemiologic studies. These studies show that an increasing nitrate level in water will 

lead actual health problems, such as methemoglobinemia ( Blue Baby Syndrome) in 

infants, issue with reproduction of spontaneous abortion, a higher risk of cancer, 

possible an increased risk of infantile gastric cancer, and higher death rates, especially 

in vulnerable populations (7). 

The majority of negative health consequences related to nitrate in drinking water most 

likely result from the combination of excessive nitrate intake and endogenous 

nitrosation-promoting variables (7). 

1.5.2 Nitrate pollution of groundwater worldwide 

Many studies have been conducted about nitrate pollution of groundwater around the 

world. In this part will we review studies conducted in Palestine and around the world. 

1. Nitrate pollution of groundwater in Palestine.  

 Ahmad et al. examined sixteen West Bank wells, and additional six wells within the 

Eocene aquifer's boundary in Qabatiya Town were taken into consideration to study 

the vertical distribution of nitrate. The results indicated that nitrate concentrations in 

Ash-Shaarawieh, especially in Illar and Attil, are higher than the maximum 

contamination level. These wells, which are under irrigated areas, have the highest 

nitrate concentrations, mostly as a result of intensive agricultural practices(17).  



16 
 

 Mahmoud et al.s’ study’s objective was to evaluate the groundwater quality 

consumed in various West Bank districts for water consumption. The particular goals 

were to evaluate the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics (such as 

faecal coliforms) and potential presence of heavy metals in the groundwater. Hydro-

geochemical methods, such as Piper and Gibbs diagrams, were also used to examine 

the geochemical structure of aquifers and potential human activity contamination. 

We recognize that this study has limitations because it only included seven wells 

sampled during the rainy season and a single sampling during the dry season. Three 

major aquifer basins were examined in this study: the North-Eastern Aquifer (NEA), 

the Western Aquifer (WA), and the Eastern Aquifer (EA). The 29 wells' groundwater 

samples were collected during the dry season, which usually spans from March to 

November. Moreover, during the wet season, samples from seven wells were also 

collected.(13) All the wells in this study's groundwater samples had nitrate 

concentrations under 30 mg/L, except for one well in Tulkarem. The nitrate 

concentration in the Tulkarem well, which takes water from the Upper Cenomanian 

aquifer, was 46 mg/L, which is close to the 50 mg/L maximum allowable limit. 

Because of the large amounts of nitrate in waste products and its subsurface 

movement, nitrate has been used as a chemical indicator of sewage contamination of 

groundwater. Given the negative impact on health and the highly complicated and 

costly treatment needed to remove it, the presence of higher nitrate concentrations in 

the majority of the wells included in this study is especially concerning(13). 

 The study by Isaac, Qumsieh, and Owewi investigates water pollution in the West 

Bank, using a methodology that combines aerial photography, field surveys, and GIS 

mapping. Data collection included analyzing wastewater disposal practices, solid and 

industrial waste, and agricultural runoff. Results revealed significant contamination 

from untreated wastewater, poorly managed solid waste, and agricultural chemicals, 

exacerbated by Israeli settlements and industrial activities. According to the 

research’s conclusions, these activities significantly damage the Jordan River and 

West Bank aquifer, highlighting the urgent need for environmental regulations and 

effective management of water resources to preserve these vital systems (18). 

 Omar Zayed gathered twenty-nine groundwater samples from wells in different 

aquifers and basins in order to evaluate the quality of the groundwater of drinking 



17 
 

water wells in the West Bank, Palestine. Heavy metal concentrations, 

microbiological traits, and physicochemical qualities were the main objects of the 

analysis. Most of the criteria controlling the water's appearance and health were 

found to be within accepted ranges for drinking water. The dominant cations were 

found in the order of Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺ > NH₄⁺, while dominant anions were 

HCO₃⁻ > Cl⁻ > NO₃⁻ > SO₄²⁻. The groundwater was characterized as relatively hard, 

with an average total hardness of approximately 2.1 mmol/L, primarily attributed to 

calcium (60%) and magnesium.  

Three major groundwater types were identified: fresh water (Ca-Mg-HCO₃), fresh 

water mixed with another water type (Ca-Mg-Na-HCO₃ or Ca-Mg-HCO₃-Cl), and 

extreme water type (Na-Ca-Mg-HCO₃-Cl or Na-Ca-HCO₃-Cl) showing high TDS, 

Cl⁻, and Na⁺. Despite generally acceptable water quality, signs of pollution were 

observed, including elevated levels of nitrate and ammonium in some deep wells 

tapping the Lower Ceneomanian confined aquifer, likely caused by uncontrolled 

disposal of untreated wastewater and/or agricultural activities. The study concludes 

that while most wells can be used for water supply after proper disinfection, concerns 

about elevated nitrate and ammonium levels in some wells remain. Zayed 

recommends further monitoring and environmental management to ensure 

sustainable availability of this freshwater source in the future (13). 

2. Nitrate pollution of groundwater worldwide.  

 In China a study conducted by Yu et al’s collected a total of 2348 samples were 

tested during the year 2015–2018. The nitrate content in Yantai's rural wells varies 

from 0.075 to 166.4 mg/L according to the study. Over 63.3% of the monitoring 

locations, the 11 mg/L WHO recommendation limit was exceeded. Rural Yantai's 

nitrate concentration is comparatively constant and unlikely to vary over time. The 

combination of geological elements and fertilizers may be the cause of Yantai's high 

nitrate concentration in rural regions. Thus, it is essential to remain alert regarding 

elevated nitrate levels b (10). 

  Dieng et al’s conducted study involved the collection of 40 groundwater samples in 

the post-monsoon season in southern part of India, followed by a laboratory analysis 

of the main ions. The range of nitrate concentration was 24–78 mg/L, with a mean of 



18 
 

46.45 mg/L. The source was divided into two categories: point and dispersed 

sources. The research region's rural area was shown to be the widespread source of 

nitrate contamination. Their agricultural productivity was heavily dependent on 

synthetic fertilizers, and they practiced modern agriculture practices such applying 

nitrogen-based fertilizers. Human-caused activities such improperly maintained open 

wells, livestock waste disposal, uncovered septic tanks, residential waste disposal, 

and mining operations are some of the other sources of nitrate detected in the 

research area (3). 

 The study by UN-IGRAC highlights nitrate contamination in the USA, particularly 

in agricultural areas. It found that over 10% of groundwater wells exceed the World 

Health Organization's safe nitrate limit of 50 mg/L. The study used groundwater 

monitoring data to track nitrate levels and identified fertilizers as the primary source. 

The research results showed the necessity of improved water management and 

methods for agriculture. In order to reduce nitrate pollution, the conclusion 

recommended improved technological and regulatory strategies (19). 

 The research conducted by Kumar et al. provides a thorough evaluation of nitrate 

contamination in agricultural landscapes throughout Europe, highlighting the 

significance of biogeochemical processes and temporary hydrologic transport trends. 

It illustrates how basic vulnerability assessments significantly minimize the risks of 

nitrate leakage through the integration of detailed hydrologic simulations with 

theoretical models. According to the results, hydroclimatic variability puts almost 

75% of farms at danger of nitrate leakage during at least one-third of the year. The 

study shows how future nitrate management and policy frameworks must take 

changing variables into account in order to enhance efforts for improving water 

quality. 

Based on observed weather information, Kumar the researchers employed advanced 

continental-scale hydrologic simulations from 1950 to 2015. Water and solvent 

movement in the root zone of the soil was modeled using transient formulations of 

travel-time distributions. The study evaluated nitrate leakage vulnerability using the 

dimensionless Damköhler number, which integrates biogeochemical reaction 

timeframes. The study focused on the geographical and temporal dynamics of 



19 
 

Europe's agricultural regions, highlighting the impact of environmental variables and 

hydroclimatic variability on the processes of nitrate transport and nitrification (20). 

 The region's limited water resources and regional conflicts enhance water pollution 

in Israel and Palestine, which has a major adverse effect on ecosystems and public 

health. The West Bank, Israel's coastal regions, the Gaza Strip, alongside significant 

waterways like the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee, and the Mountain Aquifer are 

the study's main areas of concern.  

It works to identify the causes and effects of many forms of pollution physical, 

chemical, and biological and recommend ways to minimize them. Through a 

rigorous analysis of 22 scholarly publications from 1972 to 2023, the study looks at 

data gathered in the field that has been analyzed in lab and GIS settings. 

Sedimentation, turbidity, and eutrophication are indicators of physical pollution, 

particularly on rivers like the Yarkon and Alexander. Groundwater in Gaza and Israel 

has been severely affected by chemical pollution, arising from untreated wastewater, 

agricultural runoff, and industrial operations. This contamination contains high levels 

of nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals, and salinity. Blooms of algae and 

contamination by bacteria are examples of biological pollution, which harms 

ecosystems and public health.  

The Gaza Valley and the Sea of Galilee are particularly vulnerable. According to the 

report, there is moderate to severe water pollution in the area, with the West Bank 

and Israeli rivers suffering physical pollution and the Gaza Strip suffering significant 

chemical contamination. To reduce pollution and protect public health, 

recommendations include implementing sustainable agricultural practices, enhancing 

water resource monitoring, developing international collaboration, and upgrading 

wastewater treatment facilities. Addressing the region's water issue, which is made 

worse by human activities and climate change, requires the following procedures. 

(21). 

 Almasri and Kaluarachchi's research uses a GIS-based modeling approach to 

investigate how nitrogen loading affects groundwater quality. Within a 376-square-

mile aquifer in Washington State, it evaluates nitrogen inputs from residential and 

agricultural sources, including fertilizers, dairy fertilizer, septic systems, and 



20 
 

atmospheric deposition. The main source of nitrogen was found to be dairy fertilizer, 

which was followed by pesticides. Recharge rates and soil nitrogen transformations 

had a major impact on nitrate leaking. According to the research, nitrification is the 

most important element controlling nitrate leakage. 

The efficiency of management methods including nitrification medication, reduced 

dairy manure loading, and improved fertilizer application rates minimizing the 

leakage of nitrates significantly. For example, nitrate leaching was reduced by up to 

16% when manure loading was reduced by 50%, and nitrification inhibitors further 

reduced the amount of nitrate that was produced in soils. To decrease high-risk 

activities in vulnerable areas, the study also underlined the significance of regional 

zoning and land-use reforms. In order to manage nitrogen deposits in soils, protect 

drinking water supplies, and reduce environmental effects, these integrated 

approaches highlight the difficulty of controlling groundwater contamination and the 

need for long-term planning (22). 

Method for detection of sources of nitrate pollution of groundwater. 

Groundwater nitrate pollution considers a serious environmental problem, often 

occurs by sewage, industrial waste, and runoff from agriculture. Developing effective 

mitigation solutions requires determining the sources of nitrate pollution. For source 

detection, a variety of methods are used, such as statistical methods, hydrochemical 

modeling, and isotopic analysis. These methods identify between natural, urban, and 

agricultural sources of nitrate by analyzing its chemical and isotopic properties. 

Recent developments integrate machine learning and geographic information 

systems (GIS), providing better spatial understanding and accuracy of contamination 

patterns. 

 Combine of GIS, Statistics and Machine Learning method:  

The objective of this research is to provide a complete approach for managing 

groundwater quality which includes both prediction and assessment of water quality. 

 The approach merges machine learning, statistics, and geographic information 

systems (GIS). The effectiveness of this method is examined by applying it to 

determine and evaluate nitrate concentrations. 



21 
 

GIS provides the ability to consider both the processes providing, and the spatial 

variations related to groundwater nitrate contamination (GNC). The results of the 

investigation were presented using statistical descriptive analysis, which makes it 

possible to figure out the frequency of any abnormal event. A variety of 

characteristics, including land use, soil type, water shed, groundwater flow direction, 

well use, well depth, and others, are investigated to identify the elements that affect 

GNC. 

 The Kriging Interpolation Method provides spatiotemporal GNC maps based on GIS. 

KIM can take statistical models and spatial autocorrelation into account. To forecast 

the probability of exceeding the globally specified NO3 limits, this study uses 

Random forest (RF). Because of its capacity to combine various decision tree 

algorithms in a cooperative way, RF was selected higher than other machine learning 

methods. It can produce many forecasts for the same occurrence. Moreover, it could 

measure the proportional value of the input-influencing variables (23). 

  Physically based highly distributed groundwater models: A map that illustrates the 

spatial distribution of the total nitrogen from the various sources is the primary 

output of this work. However, there are numerous other outputs that are also 

important, such as the basic statistics connected to the various nitrogen sources and 

the corresponding percentages of occurrence. MODFLOW and MT3DMS are 

examples of used models in this study (24). 

  Isotopic method: The effect of varied geological structure on groundwater residence 

times and related potential sources, mixing, and recharge mechanisms were 

examined using integrated isotopic methods (25) . 

  Overlay and index methods: The overlay and index methods merge maps of the 

region's various physiographic properties (such as its geology, soils, and depth to the 

water table) and give each one an estimated value or score. Adoption of map overlay 

and index technologies has become easier as GIS technology has become more 

widely used (26) . 



22 
 

1.5.3 Vulnerability assessment for aquifer  

 DRASTIC and GOD method: The application of DRASTIC method is suitable for 

areas with general hydrogeological setup and low data availability. It is suggested to 

use an even more simple method; GOD if data is limited (11). Examples of 

parametric systems include Haertle (1983) and DRASTIC (1987), which use a subset 

of parameters as indicators of vulnerability and assign their range of values and 

interactions to produce some sort of relative or absolute vulnerability index.  

 EPIK is another noteworthy technique in this category. It was created especially for 

karst limestone aquifers and has been described by Doerfliger and Zwahlen (1998) 

(11) Compared to DRASTIC, the GLA's grading system and its adaptation, the PI 

method, are less subjective and more based on scientific principles.  

 The modified PI technique can be used in all hydrogeological settings because it 

takes into consideration the GLA's limitations for karst environments (limestone, 

dolomite, and dolomite limestone). In regions with different lithological units, it is 

advised to employ a combination of the GLA or the PI methods (27). 

Management practices to address nitrate pollution in groundwater. According to 

previous studies, different recommendations to decrease and mitigate the nitrate issue 

were adopted. 

 Ramalinggam et al’s suggested training farmers about the benefits of using organic 

fertilizers (OF). The OF has more benefits than synthetic fertilizers, such as not 

creating an impermeable layer on the soil's surface. they advised those involved in 

the water management system to examine sewage and water pipelines and educate 

themselves on the dangers of disposing of waste on landscapes (16) 

  Hejaz et al’s recommended to give greater authority to the water institutions to 

monitor water sources, they must be enhanced. Wastewater treatment plants are an 

essential need for large societies if contamination in the aquifers is to be reduced and 

controlled (2) 

  Judeh et al’s proposed a strategy for Palestine's sustainable groundwater quality 

management. Establishing groundwater monitoring programs requires cooperation 



23 
 

between several parties, such as the Ministry of agriculture and Palestinian water 

authority. These actions should limit the heavy use of agriculture chemicals and 

cesspits in order to encourage Palestine's sustainable groundwater use (23) 

  Yu et al’s suggests that regular groundwater monitoring and collaboration between 

communities, industry, and government agencies are crucial for promptly identifying 

and managing nitrate contamination. Complete solutions to protect groundwater 

quality from nitrate contamination can be developed by combining government 

efforts, environmentally friendly behaviors, and citizen participation.(10) 

 The National Water Policy for Palestine (2013–2032) emphasizes comprehensive 

strategies to protect groundwater from pollution and ensure sustainable management 

of water resources. Key measures include regulating groundwater abstraction within 

sustainable limits, preventing contamination from fertilizers, pesticides, and 

untreated wastewater, and enforcing the polluter-pays principle. Strategies focus on 

continuous monitoring of water quality, identifying pollution sources, promoting 

aquifer recharge using stormwater infiltration, and developing non-conventional 

water resources like treated wastewater. The policy advocates for improved 

wastewater treatment infrastructure, efficient agricultural practices, and community 

involvement through public awareness campaigns. Governance measures include 

defining clear water rights, regulating abstraction through permits, and fostering 

public-private partnerships for technological and financial advancements. 

Progressive tariffs are recommended to ensure financial sustainability and equitable 

access to water and sanitation. By integrating these approaches, the policy aims to 

mitigate pollution, preserve groundwater, and support sustainable development under 

challenging climatic and geopolitical conditions (28). 

 St. Foster states that supply protection areas, also known as source protection zones 

(11), must be safeguarded against: 

1. pollutants that degrade with time, for which the strongest defense is subsurface 

residence time. 

2.  nonbiodegradable pollutants, for which flowpath-dependent dilution is required.  

Both are required for complete security. Degradation (breakdown) is also likely to 

occur for certain contaminants (and various other processes like adsorption and 



24 
 

precipitation for others), but the predominant attenuation process is typically 

contaminant dilution brought on by the advection and dispersion mechanisms 

connected to groundwater flow. Groundwater flow paths determine the geometry of 

the entire capture zone, while water balance concerns determine the area it covers. 

It is the area that provides the long-term yield protection. Therefore, the area of the 

groundwater flow system will be determined, assuming it is in a steady-state 

condition, as is typically the case. It should be understood, although, that the actual 

capture area will be greater than the protected area during long periods of drought 

(when groundwater recharge distance from the actual underground water extraction 

location is lower than typical). Additionally, the capture area will be less in regions 

where the aquifer is contained behind impermeable strata (11) 

The innermost protection perimeter is that of the wellhead operational zone, which 

comprises a small area of land around the supply source itself. It is highly preferable for 

this area to be under ownership and control of the groundwater abstractor. In this zone 

no activities should be permitted that are not related to water abstraction itself, and even 

these activities need to be carefully assessed and controlled to avoid the possibility of 

pollutants reaching the source either directly or via adjacent disturbed ground (11). All 

parts of the zone used for well maintenance activities should have a concrete floor to 

prevent infiltration of oils, chemicals, and sewage used in pump maintenance. Fencing 

is also standard practice to prevent invasion by animals and vandalism (11) 



25 
 

Chapter Two 
Methodology 

2.1 Methodology 

The following is the methodology: 

1. Understanding the problem of nitrate pollution in wells. This involves assessing the 

nitrate data from the Yabad Eastern Well by plotting time series, which could help 

identify the onset of the problem and allow for comparison with activities that 

occurred around that time. 

2. Reviewing relevant research into the West Bank's groundwater contamination . 

Furthermore, in-person interviews are used to gather data and conduct initial 

analyses. After that, all the related data and information about Yabad Eastern Well 

were gathered. The source of the data includes boundaries of aquifer, static water 

level, elevation, geological formation, and well characteristics. 

3. Perform nitrate tests on the Yabad Eastern Well and nearby wells within the same 

aquifer. To determine the groundwater flow direction, we will use readings of static 

water level for five wells and use the elevation data for each well. With this data, 

we can calculate the hydraulic head at each well by subtracting the static water 

level from the elevation. By using GIS software, we can then create a digital 

elevation model (DEM) and generate a flow direction grid. The flow direction grid 

will show the direction of groundwater movement based on differences in hydraulic 

head between the wells. By analyzing these flow direction patterns, we can find the 

groundwater flow direction and determine the groundwater flow direction within 

the study area. GIS tools will allow for the creation of head contour lines, providing 

a clearer understanding of the groundwater flow direction in the study area.  

To identify upstream and downstream area, we can follow the groundwater flow 

direction along the flow direction grid. The upstream area is defined as the region 

from which the groundwater flows towards a particular well, while the downstream 

area is the region towards which the groundwater flows.  



26 
 

Following the contours and examining the flow direction allows us to map the areas 

upstream or downstream of the wells, helping in identifying areas that affect or 

contribute to groundwater movement. 

4. Vulnerability analysis by using the GOD method. A popular technique for 

determining an aquifer's vulnerability to contamination, particularly caused by 

contaminants like nitrates, is the GOD method. It involves analyzing three primary 

elements: depth to groundwater, underlying materials, and geology. First, 

permeability and the ability of geological formations to transfer contaminants are 

taken into account by the Geology (G) factor; rocks that are more permeable are 

considered to be more sensitive. The form and thickness of the materials above the 

aquifer, including soil or clay, which may act as a natural filter to slow down or 

stop contamination, is determined by the Overlying Materials (O) factor. The 

distance between the ground surface and the aquifer is identified as the depth to 

groundwater (D). Shallower depths often enhance vulnerability because 

contaminants are more likely to reach the water table. These factors are combined 

to assign a vulnerability score, which can be mapped to identify high-risk areas 

within the aquifer. The GOD method allows for a comprehensive, spatially detailed 

assessment of aquifer vulnerability, providing valuable insights for land-use 

planning, environmental protection, and water quality management. The GOD 

index is a measure of the aquifer vulnerability that is computed by multiplying the 

influence of the three factors using Equation (1). 

GOD Index = Ca Cl Cd                                                 (1) 

where Ca is the type of aquifer; Cl is the overlaying lithology of the zone and Cd is 

the depth to the aquifer. 

We selected this method because there are fewer parameters which are available. 

However, there are many other methods that are more accurate but need more data 

parameters to utilize are not available. 

5. Determination of the contamination source: By overlaying the three maps of flow 

direction, vulnerability area, and groundwater recharging area using GIS. 

 



27 
 

Figure 5  

Research methodology 

 

2.2 Data Collection 

This chapter concentrates on the raw data that will be collected for analysis of Yabad 

Eastern Well and surrounding area. The collected data will be separated into two 

groups: 1st related to Yabad Eastern Well, 2nd related to aquifer and surrounding area, 

including other nearby wells.  

2.3 Yabad Eastern Well Data 

The data collected for Yabad Eastern Well is related to the historical data of nitrate at 

Yabad Eastern Well, and this data was gathered from the Ministry of Health, which 

conducted tests for Yabad Eastern Well. 



28 
 

The well characteristics such as depth, static water level, yielding, and elevation were 

gathered from a report conducted in 2002 by Ch2mHill, the summary of this report as 

follows: 

The Yabad Eastern Well, constructed as part of the USAID Phase II Bulk Water Supply 

Project, is located 13 km southwest of Jenin in the West Bank. Designed to supply 

drinking water to Yabad Municipality, the well reaches a total depth of 500 meters 

below ground surface (mbgs) with a casing diameter of 13 3/8 inches and a slotted 

section spanning 100 meters between 250-350 mbgs. The static water level (SWL) is 

253 mbgs, and the dynamic water level (DWL) is 284.4 mbgs at a pumping rate of 82 

m³/hr. The hydrogeologic setting comprises primary aquifers from the Upper 

Cenomanian (Bethlehem & Hebron Formations) and Lower Cenomanian (Upper Beit 

Kahil Formation), with regional groundwater flowing north-northeast toward the Harod 

Valley. The construction, spanning November 2001 to May 2002, involved detailed 

processes such as conductor pipe installation, nine-stage cementing with 91 m³ of 

cement, manual slotting, and acidization using 24 m³ of 22% HCl. Development efforts 

addressed sediment issues, although challenges like delays due to security restrictions 

and equipment failures persisted. Water quality testing revealed selenium (13.6 µg/L) 

and thallium (14.9 µg/L) exceeding benchmarks, though total dissolved solids (TDS), 

chloride, and iron levels were within acceptable limits. Aquifer testing showed an 

average transmissivity of 56.70 m²/day. Recommendations include addressing water 

quality concerns, implementing sediment control, regular acidization, and long-term 

monitoring to ensure sustainable and safe water supply (14) 

2.4 Aquifer and surrounding environment 

The data related to the aquifer and the wells surrounding the Yabad Eastern Well were 

gathered from the Palestinian Water Authority, "PWA."  This data includes the aquifer 

name, flow direction, geological formation, catchment area, vulnerability area, and 

surrounding wells elevations, static water level, and yielding flow. Other data was 

collected related to the study area, like land use, land classification, soil classifications, 

and houses from the Ministry of Local Government, "MoLG”. Lastly, the data about the 

population was gathered from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, "PCBS.” 



29 
 

2.5 Tests were conducted on wells located within the study area 

Sampling sites were selected for laboratory analysis, where nitrate concentrations were 

measured at the Water and Environmental Studies Institute (WESI) laboratory at An-

Najah National University. These samples were collected and analyzed as follows 

procedure: 

Steps for Sampling Groundwater and Testing Nitrate Concentration Using a UV-Vis 

Spectrometer 

1. Preparation: 

– Materials and Equipment: Gather clean glass or plastic sampling bottles, UV-Vis 

spectrometer, standard nitrate solutions, 1N HCl, pipettes, a centrifuge (if needed), 

deionized water, and gloves. 

– Sterilization: Ensure all bottles and equipment are clean and sterilized to avoid 

contamination. 

– Reagents: Prepare reagents, including 1N HCl, to reduce Total Organic Carbon 

(TOC), which can interfere with nitrate measurements. 

2. Sampling: 

- Select Wells: Identify the seven groundwater wells for sampling based on the study 

objectives. 

- Flush the Well: Purge the well by pumping water until fresh water from the aquifer 

is obtained, ensuring a representative sample. 

- Collect Samples: 

- Use clean bottles to collect approximately 500 mL of water from each well. 

- Fill bottles completely to minimize air exposure and oxidation. 

- Preserve Samples: Add 1 mL of 1N HCl to each 500 mL sample to decrease TOC 

levels and stabilize nitrate concentration. 

3. Transportation: 

- Store the samples in a cooler with ice packs at approximately 4°C to maintain 

integrity during transport to the laboratory. 

 



30 
 

4. Sample Preparation in the Laboratory: 

- Filter Samples: Use a 0.45 µm filter to remove particulates that could scatter light 

during spectroscopic analysis. 

- Dilution: Dilute samples with distilled water because nitrate concentrations for 

Yabad Eastern Well is expected to exceed the linear range of the spectrometer. 

5. UV-Vis Spectrometer Setup: 

- Calibrate the Instrument: 

- Warm up the UV-Vis spectrometer. 

- Measure a blank sample (deionized water) to zero the instrument. 

- Prepare Standard Solutions: Create a calibration curve using standard nitrate 

solutions of known concentrations (e.g., 0, 5, 10, 20, 50 mg/L). 

6. Analysis: 

- Measure Absorbance: 

- Transfer each sample into a clean quartz cuvette. 

- Measure the absorbance at the wavelength specific to nitrate (commonly 220 nm for 

nitrate detection and 275 nm for organic interference correction). 

7. Data Processing: 

- Plot the absorbance values of the standards against their concentrations to create a 

calibration curve. 

- Use the calibration curve to calculate nitrate concentrations in the water samples 

from their absorbance values. 

8. Quality Control: 

- Repeat Measurements: Measure each sample at least three times to ensure 

consistency. 

- Blanks and Controls: Run blank samples and quality control standards to verify 

instrument accuracy and precision. 

9. Interpretation and Reporting: 



31 
 

- Compare Results: Analyze nitrate concentrations against local or international 

standards (WHO guideline of 50 mg/L for drinking water). 

This method ensures accurate and reliable nitrate concentration measurements while 

accounting for potential interferences from organic carbon and ensuring sample 

integrity. Table 3 summarized the results based on the tests that were carried out on 

17/04/2024. 

Table 3  

Nitrate concentrations in wells within study area 

No. Well Name Concentration mg/L 

1 Arrabeh Well "Old" 32 

2 Arrabeh Well "Al Mardawi" 21 

3 Kifarit Well 26 

4 Ali Deep Well 19 

5 Yabad Well "New" 31 

6 Abu Shamlih Well 33 

7 Yabad Eastern Well 92 

  

 

 

 

 

 



32 
 

Chapter Three 

Analysis and results 

Analyzing the groundwater components and the variables that affect contamination 

movements is crucial for understanding the extent, sources, and risks associated with 

pollutants that affect this vital resource (10). This chapter focuses on the methods and 

techniques used to analyze groundwater contamination, providing insights into 

identifying pollutants sources, their movements, from where access, and the potential 

impacts on the well water quality. 

To understand the problem, we need to make a view for the nitrate test results that are 

done before to know the date of nitrate problem appearing. This date obtained from the 

Ministry of Health; we can notice that the nitrate problem started since 2021 from the 

Figure 4. 

The previous step helped in determining the new activities for land use that did take 

place at that time within the area, which was determined in the next steps. And by 

taking new nitrate tests from Yabad Eastern Well and the wells existing in the 

surrounding area, it will help in knowing if the problem is general for the aquifer or 

locally in Yabad Eastern Well only. On the other hand, the new tests will also reveal if 

this increase in nitrate concentration is temporary or permanent. 

For this research, we selected seven wells for sampling, and the results were as in Table 3. 

Figure 6 displays the nitrate concentration test results for the wells in the study area. 

The concentrations are represented by filled circles of different sizes, with the circle size 

increasing proportionally to the nitrate concentration level. From Table 3 and Figure 6, 

we note that the increase in nitrate concentration appears only in Yabad Eastern Well, 

and this result gave indicators that the problem is locally for this well only. But to find 

if it is temporal or a permanent increase, the test was repeated in 30/04/2024 and in 

09/05/2024, and the results were 92 mg/L and 89 mg/L, respectively. The nitrate results 

indicate that the problem is persistent. 

 



33 
 

Figure 6  

Nitrate concentrations in wells within study area 

 
 

For determining the area that is considered an entry or access of pollutants, we need to 
utilize many parameters that play major roles in this manner. Aquifer boundaries, 
groundwater flow direction, and vulnerability area are considered as main parameters 
for this analysis process. 

3.1 Aquifer boundaries 

Determining the aquifer boundaries is essential for studying contamination problems in 
Yabad Eastern Well well because it helps define the area contributing to the 
groundwater flow and potential sources of pollutants. By understanding the extent and 
limits of the aquifer, researchers can identify recharge zones, track contamination 
pathways, and assess the influence of surrounding land use on water quality. This 
information is critical for accurately modeling contamination behavior, implementing 
effective mitigation measures, and ensuring the long-term protection of the water 
supply. For determining within which aquifer the Yabad Eastern Well is within, maps 
obtained from the PWA were used. The aquifers are divided into three basins, the 
northeastern, western, and eastern as shown Figure B9  . Yabad Eastern Well is located 
within the northeastern aquifer as shown in Figure B10 . 

But to check the accuracy of the basin boundaries map, head contours map was 
developed based on the between wells summarized in Table 3, If the contour lines 
decrease or increase in one direction without any break this means all wells are located 
in the same groundwater basin. 



34 
 

Figure B 11displays contour lines that decrease from south to north without irregular 
measurements, indicating that all the wells are within the same basin. However, based 
on the basin boundaries map obtained from the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA), the 
Yabad New Well is located within the western basin. Upon reviewing the source of this 
map, it was noted that its precision is not high. By determining the location of the 
Yabad Eastern Well within a specific basin and deriving contour lines from the water 
head, we can identify the groundwater flow direction, including the upstream and 
downstream areas. To evaluate potential groundwater contamination sources, it is 
essential to understand the components of groundwater protection, as illustrated in 
Figure B 12. This figure provides a clear representation of the concept of aquifer 
pollution vulnerability (APV) and the elements that contribute to groundwater 
protection. The Source Protection Area (SPA) is demarcated with concentric zones, 
indicating varying levels of vulnerability. Zone A, being the closest to the aquifer 
recharge point, represents the highest vulnerability, while Zones B and C are 
progressively less vulnerable due to their increased distance and potential protective 
barriers. The arrows showing horizontal flow directions effectively highlight the 
potential paths for contaminants to transport through the aquifer system, ensure the need 
for a detailed understanding of pollutant transport methods. 

The predominant lithology of confining beds or the unsaturated zone plays a critical role 
in determining the aquifer’s vulnerability. Areas with thin or highly permeable 
lithological coverage, such as sand or gravel, are easier to contaminate due to limited 
natural protection, whereas thicker or less permeable layers, like clay, offer more 
protection. The depth to the aquifer or water table is a vital factor shown in the figure. A 
shallow water table, as shown in Zone A, increases the risk of contamination since 
pollutants require less time to travel, while deeper zones, such as Zone C, provide a 
greater buffer against potential contaminants. 

The figure also shows the dominance of vertical flow in the unsaturated zone and 
horizontal flow within the saturated aquifer, which is crucial for understanding the 
mechanisms of pollutant migration. By combining these factors depth, lithology, and 
flow directions the concept of aquifer pollution vulnerability is effectively notify. 
However, adding further details, such as a legend to explain symbols or flow directions, 
would enhance clarity. Additionally, integrating land-use, such as agricultural, 
industrial, or residential areas, within the SPA would provide a more comprehensive 
perspective on pollution risks. Overall, the figure is an excellent tool for understanding 



35 
 

groundwater protection but could benefit from slight modifications to improve practical 
applicability and clarity. 

3.2 Groundwater flow direction 

Understanding groundwater flow direction is very important for this research. This 
parameter helps in determining the upstream and downstream area for wells. Beside it 
helps in detecting the area from which pollutant is coming since the groundwater flow is 
considered as the transporter of pollutant. 

Now, we need the hydraulic level for the wells within the study area to find the contour 
lines, and from contour lines can derive flow direction. By using ArcGIS and data of wells 
within study area shown in the Table 4 groundwater flow direction was determined. 

 



36 
 

Table 4  

Data of wells within study area 

Well  Name PWA/code X Y 
Elevation 

asl (m) 

Static Water 

Level (m) 

Hydraulic Level 

(m) 

Aquifer 

Name 

Well Depth 

(m) 

1  Eastern Yabad Well 16-20/006 167003 205764.9 270 265 5 Northeastern 550 

2  New Yabad Well (Western) --- 164623.9 204923.25 300 265 35 Northeastern 410 

3  Kiferiat Well 17-20/053 170849.2 205076.8 255 295 -40 Northeastern 700 

4  Arrabeh Well 17-20/051A 171366.6 201147.19 266 255 11 Northeastern 405 

5  
New Arrabeh Well 

(Mardawi) 
16-20/007 168398.1 201068.59 285 266 19 Northeastern 410 

 

 

 



37 
 

The following steps will be conducted on ArcGIS software to find the groundwater flow 

directions: 

- Import well data from csv file to ArcGIS as point shapefile GIS layer. Each point 

represents a well within the study area and have the data as shown in 

- The result of this step appears as Figure B 13. 

- To develop the contour lines, the IDW-Interpolation tool was selected and use 

hydraulic level values to represent z-value field to generate raster-IDW image as 

shown in Figure B 14. 

- Use contour tool from surface tool box to create the contour lines which represent 

water head for the area creates by the utilized wells. he water head was calculated 

by subtracting the static water level from the elevation of the well. This contour 

lines will dervitave from previous raster image  as appear in Figure B 15. 

- A TIN was created using the 3D Analyst tools on the contour lines generated in the 

previous step to produce a TIN layer. In this step, the coordinate system was 

redefined, and the results are presented in Figure B 16. 

- The flow direction tool from hydrology tool box was used to create flow direction 

raster layer as shown in Figure B 17. 

- The flow direction raster layer was discretized into cells using the resample tool, as 

illustrated in Figure B 18. 

- We will convert the resample layer to point by using raster to point tool. This step 

will provide each cell with point of a value that represent the direction according to 

ArcGIS direction code as in Figure B 19. After assigning this code for all the 

created points. The results appear as in Figure B 20. 

After determination of the map of the groundwater flow direction, the southeastern area 

of the well was considered as the upstream area which the northeastern area was 

considered as the downstream area. 

Anthoer parameter that we need to determine is the spitial distribution of groundwater 

recharge. The groundwater recharge helps to determine the potential locations where the 

contaminats entered the aquifer. 

 



38 
 

3.3 Groundwater recharge area 

A groundwater recharge area is the area where water is capable to seep into the ground 

and refill an aquifer since no confining layer is present (29). In this study, delination of 

the  recharge area was essential Figure B 21 shows the recharge areas within study area. 

This map prepared by PWA. 

From the recharge area map, we can note that Yabad Eastern Well will not receive 

water from the recharge area with area study because the groundwater flow direction is 

coming from southwestern to northeastern, so any contamination source within the 

recharge area shown in the map will not affect Yabad Eastern Well However, 

identifying the groundwater recharge area relies on the vulnerability of the aquifer, 

which will be determined later in this research. 

3.4 Vulnerability assessment of aquifer 

Groundwater vulnerability refers to the likelihood or potential for contaminants to reach 

a specific point within the groundwater system after being introduced at a location 

above the uppermost aquifer. The concept of groundwater vulnerability assessment 

recognizes that aquifers have varying characteristics across different locations, making 

some areas more susceptible to deterioration in both quantity and quality. Assessing 

groundwater vulnerability is a critical process for determining how exposed a particular 

region is to specific threats, whether they are natural, or human made. This assessment 

plays a vital role in understanding groundwater quality in an area and serves as a 

valuable tool for effective groundwater and environmental management (30). 

 Analysis of groundwater vulnerability was carried out using the GOD approach. The 

Geographical Investigation System methodology is used by the GOD method for the 

surrounding area. Groundwater vulnerability is evaluated using three parameters: depth 

to water table, overlaying strata, and groundwater confinement (30). The three primary 

factors of the GOD technique are depth to water table (D), overlaying lithology (O), and 

groundwater confinement (G) as shown in Figure B 22.  

Figure 7 provides a detailed framework for assessing aquifer pollution vulnerability 

based on three key parameters: groundwater confinement, overlying strata, and depth to 

the groundwater table. Each parameter contributes to determining the vulnerability of an 



39 
 

aquifer to pollution, with the vulnerability ranging from negligible to extreme, as 

depicted at the bottom of the figure. 

Figure 7  

GOD system for evaluation of aquifer pollution vulnerability (7) 

 
 

The first parameter, groundwater confinement, categorizes aquifers based on their level 

of protection from overlying layers. Unconfined aquifers, which are directly exposed to 

surface influences, exhibit the highest vulnerability (scoring up to 1.0), while confined 

aquifers with thick, impermeable overlying layers have significantly lower vulnerability. 

This illustrates how important aquifer limitation is to reduce the entry of pollutants. 

Overlying strata, the second parameter, looks at the lithological characteristics and level 

of consolidation of the controlling beds or vadose zone. Higher vulnerability ratings 

result from pollutants being able to more quickly infiltrate unconsolidated soils, such as 

alluvial sands and gravels. On the other hand, consolidated rocks, such as karst 

limestones and dense calcretes, give more protection against the infiltration of 

pollutants, which reduces vulnerability. 



40 
 

This classification highlights the protective function of the geological structures that 

cover aquifers. 

The third measure, depth to the groundwater table, measures the depth that 

contaminants have to travel in order to reach the water table. Because decaying 

processes have less time and opportunity at shallow depths (less than 5 meters), 

vulnerability increases significantly. As a result, deep depths more than 50 meters offer 

a significant buffer, which lowers vulnerability levels. This element highlights how 

vertical distance affects aquifer contamination vulnerability. 

The figure shows a thorough and systematic method to evaluate the vulnerability of 

aquifer contamination by combining these three factors. It is a useful tool for managing 

groundwater resources because it makes it possible to understand the behavior and 

identify areas that are more vulnerable. To more effectively integrate the theoretical 

framework in real world applications, the figure may benefit from real-world examples 

or scenarios for each vulnerability type. Furthermore, adding information on land use or 

sources of contamination could improve vulnerability assessment even more. 

 To assess GOD vulnerability, a number between 0 and 1 is assigned to each composing 

parameter, with 0 indicating the least vulnerable and 1 indicating the most vulnerable. 

After the parameter maps are ready, the GOD index is calculated using the parameter 

ranges and ratings as shown in Figure 7. 

The GOD index is a tool used to assess the sensitivity of groundwater to contamination. 

Aquifer vulnerability that is computed by multiplying the influence of the three factors 

using Equation 1. 

GOD Index = Ca Cl Cd                                      Equation 1 

where Ca is the type of aquifer; Cl is the overlaying lithology of the zone and Cd is the 

depth to the aquifer. 

Although there are many more accurate vulnerability approaches that require more data 

parameters to utilize, we chose this method because it requires less parameters.  

Now, we should specify each parameter in order to determine the vulnerability value for 

the given scenario based on the hydrologic setting of the aquifer. The parameter values 



41 
 

were defined with guidance from Engineer Sayel Weshahi during a personal interview. 

Previously, he created a matrix to assess groundwater vulnerability in the same area, 

which will be used as a reference and validation tool for the GOD method. 

3.5 Hydrogeologic Setting 

The geological map is shown in Figure 8, while the column of the West Bank is 

presented in Table 1 which gives a clear picture about its stratigraphy, and lithology.  

Below are the main hydrogeological units of the area and arranged by age from 

youngest to oldest: 

The Shallow aquifer (Alluvium and Lisan Formation) of Plio-Pleistocene ages 

(Quaternary)  

Geologically, the area is predominantly covered by Lisan Formation rocks, which date 

back to the Pleistocene age. The Lisan Formation in this region primarily consists of 

thinly laminated marls and gypsum beds. Structurally, the marls exhibit a simple 

configuration, featuring minor north-south trending folds and a slight depositional dip 

towards the Jordan River, the basin's center, potentially amplified by subsidence. At the 

margins, the lithology transitions to gravel and poorly sorted pebble beds, which are 

occasionally calcareous with minimal or no evaporites. In some areas, these deposits are 

siliceous near former or existing chert outcrops and limestone near older rocks(31). 

Additionally, alluvium deposits are present along the tributaries of the Jordan River. 

These deposits consist mainly of unconsolidated, laminated marls, mud, and some 

siliceous sand. The Lisan Formation and alluvium collectively form the primary aquifer 

system in the region, which is extensively utilized by numerous agricultural wells. The 

hydrogeological properties of this aquifer vary across the area, depending on the 

lithological composition and sediment thickness. Recharge of the Pleistocene system 

primarily occurs through lateral flow from the Mountain Aquifer Systems, which are 

replenished in mountainous areas located 10 to 30 kilometers to the west, as well as 

through stormwater infiltration from flooded valleys crossing the aquifer (31). 

- Khan Al Ahmar Aquiclude:  The rocks of this formation are primarily composed of 

chalk, marl, as well as chalky and marly limestone. Generally, due to its 



42 
 

characteristics, the Khan Al Ahmar Formation functions as an aquiclude in the area, 

acting as a barrier between the Pleistocene aquifer and the local Al Qilt aquifer. 

- Al Qilt Aquifer:  This formation primarily comprises thick chert layers interbedded 

with limestone, dolomite, chalk, bituminous marl, and phosphate. The chert is often 

highly fractured, occasionally forming chert breccia, with the layers creating 

undulations of a few meters. Due to its fractured nature, the Al Qilt Formation 

serves as a local aquifer in the area, with some wells tapping into this aquifer 

yielding significant discharge rates. The Al Qilt Formation is also distinguished by 

its rapid lateral facies changes, often occurring over very short distances. 

- Abu Dies Aquiclude:  Chalk rocks are the primary constituent of this formation. In 

certain areas, the formation also includes chalky limestone, marl, phosphate, and 

chert. Based on its lithological characteristics, the Abu Deis Formation functions as 

a strong aquiclude in the region. 

3.5.1 The Upper aquifer system (Turonian-Upper Cenomanian) 

Geologically, this aquifer system, according to Palestinian nomenclature, consists of the 

Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Hebron formations. The rocks of the Jerusalem Formation 

date back to the Turonian age and are primarily composed of dark grey-brown 

weathered massive limestone, which locally forms cliffs. The lower part of the 

formation consists of finely grained lithographic limestone with pink and buff hues, 

while the upper part features cream-colored recrystallized dolomitic limestone, 

occasionally silicified. The thickness of the Jerusalem Formation ranges from 170 to 

200 meters. 

3.5.2 Bethlehem Formation 

The Upper Cenomanian is primarily composed of cream-grey bedded chalky limestone, 

often fully recrystallized into cream or pink porcellaneous limestone, along with softer 

marly chalky limestone and marl. The thickness of the Bethlehem Formation varies 

between 100 and 150 meters. 

3.5.3 Hebron Formation  

The Upper Cenomanian Formation is composed of grey weathered dolomitic limestones 

and dolomite. The rock is dense, massive, and exhibits poor bedding, with a sugary 



43 
 

texture. This texture leads to high secondary porosity and the development of karst 

features in several parts of the formation. The thickness of the Hebron Formation ranges 

between 160 and 250 meters. 

3.5.4 Lower Aquifer System 

The lower aquifer system consists of the Middle and Lower Yatta, Upper Beit Kahil, 

and Lower Beit Kahil formations, according to Palestinian terminology. The Yatta 

Formation is primarily composed of marl, clay, and marly limestone. The Upper Beit 

Kahil Formation consists of regularly interbedded chalky limestone and dolomite, 

becoming more massive and karstified upwards, while still maintaining thin-bedded 

alternations. The Lower Beit Kahil Formation is made up of dolomite and limestone 

interbedded with marl. Although the dolomitic limestone is well-fractured and has 

significant aquifer potential, the chalky layers contain clay, which restricts groundwater 

movement across these strata. The Lower Aquifer System is separated from the upper 

aquifer by the brown-grey weathered marls and chalky limestone of the Upper Yatta 

Formation, which acts as a confining bed in the region. Similar to other aquifer systems, 

groundwater generally flows eastward, with the water table located between 320 and 

340 meters below the surface in this area. 

Now after understanding the properties of aquifer and referring to Table 1, we can 

determine the value of each parameter. In this research, these values were determined 

based on work of Eng. Sael Weshahi. 

3.5.5 G-parameter 

Table 5 summarized that we assigned the lowest value for a confined aquifer which is 

0.1 due to its characteristics that make it difficult for water processes to infiltrate. The 

vulnerability will be extremely low as a result of the prior definition, and the G-

parameter will also be low. The G value for semi-confined will be 0.3 because the 

characteristics of aquifer in this type allow water to infiltrate more than the previous 

type and less than the next type. For unconfined aquifer the G value will be 0.9 because 

the characteristics of this type allow to water to seep and infiltrate easily to aquifer 

which make the aquifer very vulnerable. The map of the G-parameter is shown in 

Figure 8-C. 



44 
 

Table