Utilization of Pyrolized Carbon Black from Waste Tire in Asphalt Concrete by Ahmad Al-Azhari Leen Shabillo Majd Fahmawi Mohammad Al-Khaldi Ohoud Kalabani Omar Radwan Supervisors Dr. Nashaat N. Nassar Dr. Ramez Al-Khaldi A Graduation Project Submitted to the Department of Chemical & Mechanical Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Bachelor Degree An-Najah National University Nablus - Palestine April 22, 2014 DISCLAIMER This report was written by the aforementioned student at the Department of Chemical Engineering. Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology. An Najah-National University. It has not been altered or corrected, other than editorial correction, as a result of assessment and it may contain language as well as content error. The view expressed in it together with any outcomes and recommendations are solely those of the students. An-Najah National University accepts no responsibility or liability for the consequences of this report being used for a purpose other than the purpose for which it was commissioned. ABSTRACT Waste tire considered as a serious environmental solid waste problem worldwide. However, this type of waste tire cannot be treated in a landfill nor burned in the atmosphere, because it releases toxic gases. Accordingly several methods have been proposed for waste tire treatment. Among these methods waste tire pyrolysis is considered the most favorable. Pyrolysis is a process of converting waste tire into gases, fuel oil, steel and a by-product, which is pyrolized carbon black (PCB). However, gas and oil can be sold out in local market as well as steel, while PCB that contains 30-35 wt% of the waste tire product becomes another solid waste problem. In this project we aimed at employing PCB in asphalt concrete used in road pavement. Accordingly, a PCB sample was obtained from a local pyrolized waste tire plant; this was used as received without any chemical purification. The following variables were tested to investigate the effect of adding PCB to asphalt concrete, namely: PCB concentration, PCB particle size and PCB as a replacement to asphalt filler in different percentage. The effectiveness of the aforementioned variable was tested using Marshall test following the ASTM method. Further, the same variables were tested on the virgin bitumen matrix to investigate their impact on the softening point, flash and fire points, penetration and ductility. For asphalt concrete, results showed an increase in the stability and stiffness values by decreasing PCB particle size and increasing both PCB concentration and filler percentage until reach the optimum value then it behaves negatively. Furthermore, the impacts of PCB concentration, PCB particle size and PCB as filler on the flow test have values within the standard, while the effects of these variables were insignificant for the specific gravity. Also air voids increase with the increase of PCB particle sizes and decrease of its concentration, until reach the optimum value. As for the virgin bitumen matrix, the effect of PCB concentration are sufficient in the flash and fire point, softening point and penetration, while it is insignificant for the ductility. Increasing the PCB particle size resulted in a positive influence on penetration and softening point, while it has a negative effect for both the ductility, flash and fire points, but for the latter it was still in the standard range. These results showed that PCB could be employed successfully in enhancing the asphalt concrete, which resulted in an environmentally friendly, waste tire pyrolysis process as well as improving its economical value. ACKNOLEDGMENET First of all, we thank Allah for granting us the knowledge and patient to accomplish our project successfully. Further, our special thanks and appreciation to our supervisors, Dr. Nashaat Nassar and Dr. Ramez Al-Khaldi, for their supports and encouragements, which were the greatest factors to complete our project effectively despite of all the difficulties we faced. Moreover, thanks to Dr. Mohammad Al-sayyed and Eng. Yousef AL-Ratrout from the Department of Chemical Engineering who honored us in their valuable knowledge. Furthermore, we would like to thank Eng. Ahmad Al-Ahmad and Eng. Sameer Halaweh from the Department of Civil Engineering and Dr. Nafez Dweikat from the faculty of Science, for helping us in some of analytical analysis of PCB samples experimental. Finally, our thanks to our parents and friends for being the burning candles that bright our success road. Last but not least, we hope from Allah to make this research beneficial and applicable for our lovely country Palestinian and worldwide. TABLE OF CONTENTS DISCLAIMER……………………………………………………..…………….II ABSTRACT…………………….…..………………………………...………....III ACKNOLEDGEMENT…….………………………………………..…………IV LITRETURE REVIEW (CHAPTER ONE) 1 1.1 Waste Tire Problems 1 1.2 Treatment of waste tires 3 1.2.1 Recycling of waste tires 3 1.2.2 Landfill disposal 6 1.3 Waste tire pyrolysis process………………………………..………………………...7 1.3.1 Advantages of waste tire pyrolysis............……………………………………8 1.3.2 Disadvantage of waste tire pyrolysis.................................................................8 1.4 Current treatments of waste tire in Palestine………………………………..………...9 1.5 Pyrolized Carbon Black...……………………………………………………………10 1.6 Asphalt Concrete..……………………………………………………………………11 OBJECTIVES (CHAPTER TWO) 13 2.1 Main Objective 13 2.2 Specific Objective 13 EXPIREMENTAL WORK (CHAPTER THREE) 14 3.1 Materials used 14 3.1.1 Aggregate 14 3.1.2 Bitumen 15 3.1.3 Pyrolized Carbon Black 15 3.2 Instruments and characterizations 16 3.3 Methodology and Experimental Procedure 21 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS (CHAPTER FOUR) 25 4.1 Introduction 25 4.2 Asphalt concrete Tests 25 4.2.1 Theoretical considerations. .……………………………………….................26 4.2.2 Stability Test……………………………………….…………………………28 4.2.3 Flow Test……………………………………………………………………..30 4.2.4 Stiffness Test……………………..…………………………….………………31 4.2.5 Specific Gravity Test………………………..……………………..………......32 4.2.6 Air Voids Test……………………………………………………………….…33 4.3 Determining the effect of each parameter of PCB by using ANOVA method……..34 4.4 Optimization...……………………………………………………………….…......35 4.5 Bitumen Tests……………..……………………………………………….……….37 4.5.1 Ductility Test…..…………………………………………………….………...37 4.5.2 Penetration Test………..……………………………..……………………..…37 4.5.3 Softening, Flash and Fire Points Tests………………………...……………….37 4.6 Analyses of virgin Bitumen Tests……………………..…………………...……….38 CONCLUSION (CHAPTER FIVE ) 43 RECOMMENDATIONS (CHAPTER SIX) 44 REFERENCES (CHAPTER SEVEN) 45 APPENDECIES.………………………………...………………………………46 Appendix 1: The accumulation of PCB particle size by using shaker…………...………46 Appendix 2: Minitab Result of PCB parameters effect by using ANOVA..…….………46 Appendix 3: Scores data of criteria of asphalt concrete by using WSM....…...…………57 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Percentage of yearly generated waste tires in different countries around the world. ……………………………………………………………………………...……...1 Figure 1.2: Uncontrolled methods of waste tires in Zahrat AL-Fonjan - Palestine. Photo taken by I. Al-Khaldi, October 2013……………………………………………..……….2 Figure 1.3: Chemical composition of a typical tire……………………………………….2 Figure 1.4: Erosion control using waste tires. Photo presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha, (Accessed on February, 2012)……………………………………………………4 Figure 1.5: Slope stabilization using waste tires. Photo taken by I. Al-Khaldi on October 2013……………………..…………………………………………………………………4 Figure 1.6: Available methods for waste tires usage. Photo presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha (Accessed on February, 2012)…………………………………………………5 Figure 1.7: Landfill of the tires (geo textile-scrapped tire). Photo presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha (Accessed on February, 2012)………………………………………………………………………………………6 Figure 1.8: Schematic representation of the main products of pyrolysis processing of waste tires………………………………………………………………………………….7 Figure 1.9: Cracking in asphalt concrete for a selected street in the city of Nablus.........11 Figure 3.1: A photograph of aggregate sizes that considered in the study.......................14 Figure 3.2: A photograph of Bitumen sample considered in this study…………………15 Figure 3.3: A photograph PCB considered in this study according to weight % of PCB.16 Figure 4.1: Stability test of asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM D1559 method....………………….…28 Figure 4.2: Flow test on asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at 0.3 mm PCB particle size. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at 0.3 mm PCB particle size. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM D1559 method. ……………..……….30 Figure 4.3: Stiffness test on asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM D1559 method ...…………………….31 Figure 4.4: Bulk specific gravity Test of asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per (AASHTO T166) method. ……….32 Figure 4.5: Percent of air voids of asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM D1559 method.…………………………………………………………………………………...33 Figure 4.6: Residual histogram for the effect of particle size of PCB on the stability (Kg) of asphalt concrete. Experimental conditions: PCB percentage 6 wt%.............................34 Figure 4.7: The scores of effects of PCB on asphalt concrete with different factors. a) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. b) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm.………..……………………………………...………………….....35 Figure 4.8: Difference between blank and modified samples with PCB...…….………..36 Figure 4.9: Bitumen Tests for effect of concentration of PCB on bitumen for a) ductility, b) penetration, c) softening point, d) flash point test e) fire point test. Experimental conditions: PCB particle sizes 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM method.…………………………………………………………….38 Figure 4.10: Bitumen Tests for effect of particle size of PCB on bitumen for a) fire point test b) flash point test, c) penetration, d) softening point, e) ductility. Experimental conditions: PCB concentration 6 wt%. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM method…………..............................................................................40 Figure 4.11: The scores of effects of PCB on Bitumen matrix with different factors. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm……………………………………...41 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Sizes of aggregate that considerd in the study..………………………...……14 Table 3.2: Instruments used for preparing and testing asphalt concrete specimens……16 Table 3.3: Instruments used for bitumen test..…………………………………………..20 Table 3.4: Bitumen Tests that performed in this study...………………………………..23 Table 4.1: Marshall Design criteria specified by LTA (PWD 1992)...………………….25 Table 4.4: The effect of parameters of PCB on asphalt concrete criteria by using ANOVA.…………………………………………………………………………………34 Table 4.5: Comparison of requirements and optimum results for bitumen criteria test....42 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PCB: Pyrolized Carbon Black HMA: Hot Mix Asphalt VTM: Voids in Total Mix ASTM: American Society for Testing and Material AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials WSM: Weighted Sum Method ANOVA: Analysis of Variance PWD: Public Works Department Gmb: Bulk specific gravity Gmm: Maximum specific gravity CHAPTER ONE LITRETURE REVIEW 1.1 Waste Tire Problems A large number of people use transportation daily in several ways, but the most prevalent one is automotive transportation; which is very important for our practical life. There are about one billion cars and tracks around the world in 2012 and they probably increase to 1.124 billion in 2015 [1]. Accordingly, huge amount of waste tire are generated every year. Figure 1.1 shows the number of waste tires produced every year in different countries. Locally, in Palestine, there are 144,000-licensed vehicles in the West Bank and 73,000 vehicles in Gaza Strip [2]. Therefore, a significant amount of waste tires are produced. Figure 1.1: Percentage of yearly generated waste tires in different countries around the world. Waste tire is one of the most important problems that face many countries in the world, especially with the growth of the auto-related industries. Therefore, the disposal of waste tires becomes serious environmental problem, especially that tires may need for up to 600 years to decompose because they contain sulfur [3] which gives non-biodegradable waste. So the accumulation of waste tire without disposal in legal sites leads to environmental pollution and risk of diseases and fires. Many countries are usually getting rid of their waste tires by uncontrolled method as shown in Figure 1.2, like burning it, even if it was burned for energy purpose, this treatment method is unsafe because of carcinogens gases result from burning, like carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur are compounds have an impact on the water, soil, air and human. Moreover, dumping waste tires in the aquatic environment leads to produce compounds liquid toxic leach into the groundwater, such as cadmium, chromium, lead, selenium and zinc, with different percentage according to Figure 1.3. These cause contamination of materials acidic just harm wildlife [4]. Figure 1.2: Uncontrolled method of waste tires in Zahrat AL-Fonjan - Palestine. Photo taken by I. Al-Khaldi, October 2013. 70% 7% 1% 1% 16% 4% 0.5% 0.3% 0.5% 0.1% 1% Carbon Hydrogen Zinc oxide Sulphur Iron Oxygen Nitrogen Stearic acid metal halogen Figure 1.3: Chemical composition of a typical tire. 1.2 Treatment of waste tires A number of methods that turn a potentially hazardous waste product (waste tires) into a valuable resource are available now. Waste tires are tires that are no longer suitable or legal for their intended usage for many reasons, such as finishing its useful life time, which is typically five years (either through use or even through its presence in the stores), or damage, brittleness or low tread depth. By that time a tire generally loses around 20% of its weight. In general tires comprise natural rubber, synthetic rubber, carbon black, oil and various reinforce. These are 100% recyclable and valuable resource [5]. Many countries with environmental legislation refer in their waste management practice to waste tires, this sets the priorities of what to do with waste tires such as, recycling, re-using, production of crumbs and strips, de-polymerization, energy recovery and disposal. 1.2.1 Recycling of waste tires A definition of recycling would be the re-using of a material for its originally intended purpose. In the case of waste tires, recycling would mean the use of recycled tire rubber as a compounding ingredient for new tires; it is referred to as grinding scrap tires into crumb while removing steel, fiber and other contaminants. It has also been cut up and used in garden beds as bark mulch to hold in the water and to prevent weeds from growing, as well as, some of “green” buildings, which is private and public, are made from old tires [Available methods for waste tires usage presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha (Accessed on February, 2012)]. Furthermore, many applications of using waste tires in engineering, especially in civil engineering; including: · Civil engineering works to take advantage of sound and impact absorption properties such as highway crash barriers, sound absorbing walls, boat fenders on harbor walls. · Coastal protection and artificial reefs. · Insulation in building foundation and road base material. · Construction of steep slopes on road wayside. · Cover material in agriculture applications and construction material for landfill. · Material to be cut up into shoe soles or other simple rubber goods like mats, floor tiles, dock fenders, muffler hungers, support pads for back hoes, well chocks, brake pads, light weight and flexible tanks, clothing accessories such as belts, handbags and buttons [6]. Figures 1.4–1.5-1.6 are shown examples of current treatment or use of waste tires. Figure 1.4: Erosion control using waste tires. Photo presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha, (Accessed on February, 2012). Figure 1.5: Slope stabilization using waste tires in Zahrat AL-Fonjan - Palestine. Photo taken by I. Al-Khaldi on October 2013. Figure 1.6: Available methods for waste tires usage. Photo presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha (Accessed on February, 2012). 1.2.2 Landfill disposal Disposal of tires is not desired to be at landfills, due to their large volumes and 75% void space, which quickly consume valuable space. Further, tires can trap methane gases, which make them to become buoyant or bubble to the surface. This bubbling effect can damage landfill liners that have been installed to help keeping landfill contaminants from polluting local surface and ground water. Instead, shredded tires are now being used in landfills, replacing other construction materials, for a lightweight backfill in gas venting systems, leachate collection systems, and operational liners. It may also be used to cap, close, or daily cover landfill site [7]. Waste tires as a backfill and cover material are also more cost-effective, since tires can be shredded on-site instead of hauling in other fill materials. A variation of land filling is mono filling, which means that waste tires are not mixed with other waste materials but stored at a dedicated, licensed location [Available methods for waste tires usage presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha (Accessed on February, 2012)]. Once the mono-fill has reached its capacity, it is covered like any other landfill to reduce the fire hazard and to prevent mosquitoes breeding. Figure 1.7 shows a typical mono-landfill shredded waste tire. Figure 1.7: Landfill of the tires (geo textile-scrapped tire). Photo presented by A. Azhari and H. Swalha (Accessed on February, 2012). 1.3 Waste tire pyrolysis process Pyrolysis is thermo chemical decomposition, turns waste into energy rich fuels by heating the waste, like waste tires under controlled conditions at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen. It occurs at around 700○C and atmospheric pressure. It is a very clean operation and has nearly no emissions or waste, carbon black is the only by-product. Figure 1.8 shows a schematic representation of a typical product of waste tire pyrolysis. As seen, the main products include [8]: · Gases (about 10 wt. %): gases produced from tire pyrolysis are mainly hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, ethane and butadiene, and other hydrocarbon gases. The gases can be used as heating application. · Fuel oil (40-45 wt. %): this oil is highly aromatic, low sulfur content, and is considered relatively good fuels that used in many industries. · Steel wire scrape (10-15 wt. %): which is very easy to sell in local market for steel production. · Carbon black powder (30-35 wt. %): which is considered the by-product of this process. Figure 1.8: Schematic representation of the main products of pyrolysis processing of waste tires. 1.3.1 Advantages of waste tire pyrolysis · Pyrolysis is a commercially proven technology that has low risk of water and air pollution. Therefore, minimal risk of health consequences. · The cost of raw materials is very approximately low. · It has high recovery rate of resources, causes some of these products are combustible and could be utilized as a source of energy in the subsequent process. · Some of output of the process has a market value like fuel oil, steel and gas. · The technology, which is used, is feasible and time and cost effective. 1.3.2 Disadvantage of waste tire pyrolysis · Technology is still evaluating. · Market is yet to be developed for coke product [9]. In this project we aim at using carbon black in improving asphalt concrete to make the tire pyrolysis process more economical and environmentally friendly. 1.4 Current treatment of waste tire in Palestine Waste tires in Palestine are discharged randomly without any control method or any governmental legislation. People use the tires of their cars more than its useful life time which must be in (2-5) years, depending on its type. They accustomed to discharge the tires after 8-10 years due to the absence of laws that prevent tires that exceed their life span. Accordingly, the number of waste tires in Palestine significantly low (50,000) tires per year [10]. Unfortunately, the available treatments solution of waste tire in Palestine is environmentally unfriendly. Committees responsible for overall waste in Palestine are accustomed to throw the waste tires in the illegal regions, or incinerated by collecting and burning it outdoor in the atmosphere to get the low cost steel. For low cost, maybe the responsible committees in Palestine suffer from dealing with this problem, and the followings could justify the reasons of uncontrolled tire disposal in Palestine. · Hardly control with the waste tires number in Palestine, due to the use of it by population more than their life span. Moreover, some of Israeli waste tire are disposed in Palestinian regions due to the low cost of discharging fee. · The lack of material resources that is necessary to face this problem and reduce the risks of it. · The weakness of technical expertise for the management of waste tires. · The long years of the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, which have left their mark on this side and restricted the possibility of addressing this problem. It should be noted that the available landfill in the West Bank, which is Zahrat Al-Fonjan, does not allow the disposal of waste tire in their facilities. Thus, a special treatment method for waste tires is of paramount important. 1.5 Pyrolized Carbon Black By pyrolysis process, which is mentioned previously, a high pyrolized carbon black content component was produced as a by-product with approximately 30-35 wt% yields of it, which is known as coke or pyrolized carbon black. This contains 75 wt% carbon black, a maximum of 9 wt% ashes, 4 wt% of sulfur, and 12 wt% of a minimum butadiene copolymer [6]. Therefore, the produced carbon black could render the tire pyrolysis environmentally unfriendly as this product contains sulfur and other heavy metal that could leach after a period of time after uncontrolled dumping. Hence, finding a suitable application process for carbon black will not just make the process environmentally friendly but profitable as well. In this project pyrolized crbon black (PCB) is used as a reinforcing agent for asphalt concrete. This will introduce a new dimension in the design of asphalt concrete locally. 1.6 Asphalt Concrete Asphalt concrete consists of two main components, namely: bitumen (4 wt%) which is an important component of asphalt concrete, that is highly viscous and contain a mixture of organic liquids, and the other known as aggregate mixture, which contains mixed of coarse 63 wt%, fine 33 wt%, and filler 4 wt% [11]. Asphalt concrete has many uses in our life, such as it is used in expansion joints on concrete roads, airport highways, some of play grounds and it helps to preserve and waterproof the roofing material [12]. In Palestine, asphalt concrete is weak and unable to sustain traffic loads without deformation and failure in stability. Therefore, it is not useful for the whole period of design pavement. Usually the Palestinian asphalt concrete is designed for 20 years, but after 5 years the periodic maintenance will begin, due to deformation cracking that starts to appear in the asphalt concrete as shown in Figure 1.9 [11]. Figure 1.9: Cracking in asphalt concrete for a selected street in the city of Nablus. Photo taken by L. Shabillo and O. Kalabani (Accessed on February, 2012). Furthermore, many problems of asphalt concrete appear after pouring, such as rutting and permanent deformation, fatigue and thermal cracking, and moisture damage. These problems might emerge due to several reasons as defects in raw materials when producing the asphalt concrete, due to the lack of adequate budget when implementing the project, or due to the limited construction of roads without compliance supported by specifications and professional supervision. These problems affect both the environment and the economy. According to the environmental factors that cause several adverse effects on the environment. It could produce extra fuel consumptions due to the decline in the speed that increases the emission of toxic gases. However, according to the economical factor, these roads have many cracks that need repair, which demand additional budget [ 3]. Therefore, in such cases the mechanical mixtures of asphalt concrete vary which would damage the asphalt layer directly. In this study, we are investigating the improvement of asphalt concrete by adding PCB to the matrix. Thus, we intend to measure the usefulness and effectiveness of PCB in asphalt concrete. Accordingly, we are testing, by using Marshall Test, many properties such as, stability, flow, stiffness and air voids (mechanical properties), and bulk specific gravity (physical properties). In addition, we study the impact of PCB on bitumen matrix as well. Many tests are used to compare the quality of bitumen before and after adding PCB, such as: penetration, flash and fire point, softening point, and ductility test. CHAPTER TWO OBJECTIVES 2.1 Main Objective This project is aimed at integrating the PCB of the waste tire processing production, which shall significantly improve the economic value of the process and decrease its environmental impact. 2.2 Specific Objectives The specific objectives of this project include 1. Investigate the ability of using PCB as additive in asphalt concrete. 2. Determine the performance characteristic of asphalt mixture by Marshal Test. 3. Obtain the optimum combination of aggregate and PCB concentration and particle size in asphalt mixture that leads to be a better performance of flexible asphalt concrete. 4. Investigate the effect of adding PCB of different concentration and particle size on virgin bitumen matrix. CHAPTER THREE EXPIREMENTAL WORK 3.1 Materials The type of asphalt that used in this study is AC 60/70. The main reason for selecting this type of asphalt is that it is the most commonly used in the West Bank-Palestine. It consists of two main components, which are bitumen and aggregate. These components are used for preparing the asphalt concrete sample for testing. 3.1.1 Aggregate The aggregate samples of different particle size are shown in Figure 3.1. These aggregate were obtained from Al-Hajar Almasei Company in Jenin-Palestine. It has some of advantages that we can obtain like hardness (resistance to wear), durability (resistance to weathering), and high crushing strength. The aggregates include different sizes listed in Table 3.1. Figure 3.1: A photograph of aggregate with different sizes that considered in the study. No. Partial Size (mm) 1. Quantize 19 – 12 2. Granite 12 – 9 3. Sandstone 9 – 4 4. Pan < 4 mm Table 3.1: Sizes of aggregate that considerd in the study. 3.1.2 Bitumen Figure 3.2 shows a picture of bitumen sample obtained from Al-Qaisi Company in Tulkarm-Palestine. The sample was used as received without further purification. The bitumen was used as a binding material of aggregates to interconnect the aggregate with each other. Figure 3.2: A photograph of Bitumen sample considered in this study. 3.1.3 Pyrolized Carbon Black (PCB) Figure 3.3a shows a photograph of PCB, a by-product that result from the pyrolysis process of waste tires, which was provided by Al-Khaldi Factory from Arrana in Jenin-Palestine. The sample considered as an improving and binding agent in our project between bitumen and aggregate. The PCB sample was used without further purification. However, before any use, the sample was screened by sieves shaker. Figure 3.3b shows particle size distribution of the considered sample. As seen in Figure 3.3b, the majority of the particle falls under the size of 0.3 mm. (more details in Appendix 1). Figure3.3: A photograph PCB considered in this study according to weight % of PCB. In our project the three main sizes that have been used are (1.18, 0.3, and 0.075 mm). 3.2 Instruments and characterizations Our project involves the preparation of asphalt concrete specimens that having a specified aggregate, bitumen, and PCB content. The specimens were prepared and tested by using many instruments which must be always ready in advance to carry out the specimen mixing, compacting operation, and preparing PCB as quickly and efficiently as possible. So in this section, the instruments are presented in sequence starting from the beginning to the end of test, as follows Table 3.2: Instruments used for preparing and testing asphalt concrete specimens [14]. No. Instrument Name-model-uses. 1. Sieves Shaker. · Model: EL80-030/1. · Made in: ELE comp -England. · Uses: To provide an effective sieving with an appropriate sizes for aggregate and PCB, as follow: No. Sieve no. Model. 1. 2.36 mm EL79-506 2. 1.18 mm EL79-510 3. 600 Mm EL79-514 4. 300 Mm EL79-518 5. 150 Mm EL79-522 6. 75 Mm EL79-526 2. Scoop handle. · Model: EL81-022. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: For holding the aggregate to be mixed with the asphalt concrete samples. Digital Balance. · Uses: For measuring out the mass of materials, which are aggregate (1200 grams) and bitumen (166 grams). 4. Steel Trays. · Model: EL81-404. · Made in: ELE comp- England. · Uses: As a shelter for asphalt concrete mixture in the drying oven. 5. Drying Oven. · Model: EL22-011. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: For heating and drying the content of asphalt concrete (aggregate and pyrolized carbon black) at 175 ⁰C. 6. Bench-Mounting Mixer. · Model: EL45-560/1. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: To ensure of mixing of asphalt concrete content. 7. Compacting molds. · Uses: For preparing a suitable shape of asphalt concrete specimens with a height 6.7 cm and diameter 10 cm, to fit with a Marshal test. 8. Compaction Pedestal · Model: EL45-641 and -646. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: For mechanical compaction of asphalt concrete, by compaction hammer. 9. Sample Extruder. · Model: ELE45-670. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Used: For fast extrusion asphalt concrete specimen from compaction molds. 10. Isomantle Electric Heater · Model: EL45-564/1. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: To maintain the temperature of the asphalt concrete content during mixing. 11. Water path: · Model: EL83-095 · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: For heating up Marshall Specimens at 60 ⁰C for 40 minutes. 12. CBR-Marshall Machine: · Model: EL29-001/1. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: To measure the strength and flexibility of asphalt concrete by stability and flow test that satisfies the demands of traffic without displacement. 13. Specific Gravity Submersion Tank · Model (of balance): D-72336 · Made in: KERN & sohn Gmbh comp-Germany · Uses: To measure the density of compacted specimens of asphalt concrete by knowing the weight in air, weight in water, weight of saturated surface dry (SSD). Table 3.3: Instruments used for bitumen test. No. Instrument Name-model-uses 1. Penetrometer · Model: EL46-530. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: For measurement the penetration. 2. Cleveland open cup Flash point test. · Model: E46-330/1. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: For indicating the temperature at which bitumen can be safely heated. 3. Softening point (Ring and ball method). · Model: EL46-450. · Made in: ELE comp- England. · Uses: for the determination of the softening point of bitumen and bituminous binder. 4. Ductilometer. · Model: EL46-260/1. · Made in: ELE comp-England. · Uses: A measure of adhesive property of bitumen and its ability to stretch. 3.3 Methodology and Experimental Procedure The basic material in this project is the PCB, so the considered tests are related to this material, where the concentration of adding PCB, and the size of the consideration carbon particles are changed, in order to see the differences between the virgin asphalt and asphalt with the presence of PCB. The comparison is based on Marshal test and specific gravity test. Accordingly, there are three main steps that were followed: Step 1: Preparing asphalt concrete specimens To design asphalt concrete we have to identify the type, proportions, and properties of the materials involved in the preparation of the asphalt concrete. Our reference here is the local market in Palestine. The types and proportions of materials used to make the asphalt concrete that typically used in street pavement. A typical asphalt concrete contains mixture of bitumen (5%-10 wt%) and aggregate (85%-95 wt%), with previous materials and proportions. The following samples are prepared 1. A control asphalt concrete sample that was considered as a reference (blank sample). 2. Study effect of different concentration of PCB (3 wt%, 6 wt%, 9 wt%, and 12 wt%) on the traditional asphalt concrete at constant PCB particle size of 0.3 mm. 3. Study effect of particle size by adding different particle size of PCB (heterogeneous, 1.18 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.075 mm, and what left in the pan) on the traditional asphalt concrete at constant concentration of 6 wt%. 4. The final one is prepared by replacing small percent of fine powder by PCB, where we would work with constant concentration and particle size (6 wt% and 0.3 mm), respectively. The aforementioned samples were prepared following the Marshal Method, as follows · First of all, PCB powders were screened by a shaker sieves to obtain the following sizes 2.36, 1.18, 0.6, 0.3, 0.15 and 0.075 mm. The aggregate used with five main sizes as mentioned previously that was already prepared from the factory. · Digital balance was used for weighting the samples according to the percentage of their size and masses. We took into consideration that the weight of the overall sample is equal 3.7 kg. From 3.7 kg sample we prepared 3 specimens of asphalt concrete with 1.2 kg weight each. · Heat the aggregate at 170⁰C in the drying oven and heat the bitumen sample until it starts boiling in order to reduce its viscosity. · Add 166 g of bitumen to the aggregate and mix them together by a mixer. · Place the blended samples into cylindrical molds with a height 6.7 cm and diameter of 10 cm, then compacted it by pestedal compaction around 75 times on each side. · Removing compacted specimen from molds by using an extruder. Step 2: Testing the samples After preparing the asphalt concrete samples, Marshall Test, bulk and maximum specific gravity tests were conducted. The following steps were employed during the Marshal Test: · By using water path, the asphalt concrete specimens were submerged for 30-40 minutes at a temperature of 60⁰C, and then it was taken out of the water path. · By using specific gravity device, the weight of dry specimens of asphalt concrete was recorded, then it was submerged in the water and their weight was measured. Then dried it by clothes to remove excess water on surface, and measured the weight again (weight of SSD) to calculate the bulk specific gravity of each specimen. · Placed each specimen in Marshall Device to measure the stability and flow, and then run the device, and when the indicator reach a maximum and start return back. The reading of flow and stability were taken at the same time. · For a maximum specific gravity test, the mass of the sample was measured in the dry air. Then it was placed in a vacuum flask and submerged in water at 25°C. After that, the entrapped air in the sample was removed by applying vacuum to the flask for 15 minutes. The flask was shaken by hands every two minutes. Finally, the mass of the flask filled with the sample and water was estimated, and then the percent of air voids was calculated accordingly. Step 3: Adding PCB to the virgin bitumen matrix In this step, many tests for bitumen were performed by adding PCB on it. These tests were shown in details in Table 3.4. Table 3.4: Bitumen Tests that performed in this study. No. Test Name Method 1. Penetration a) Preparing the samples: 1. The sample was heat until it becomes movable. 2. The sample was pour into a cylindrical mold to the depth at least 10 mm (greater than the expected penetration). Then allow cooling at room temperature for 1 hour. 3. The sample was placed in a water bath at 25 °C for (1-1.5) hours. b) Testing the samples: 1. The sample was placed on the base of penetration apparatus, and mounts the needle on bitumen that should touch the surface of bitumen. 2. Allow the needle to penetrate in the sample, and stop it after 5 sec. 3. Measure the penetration distance, the reading taken in tenth of mm. 2. Ductility a) Preparing the samples 1. The sample was heated until it becomes movable. 2. Then, it was placed into a special mold, and allowed to cool in an atmospheric temperature for 30-40 minutes. 3. After that, the sample placed in a water bath at 25°C for 30 min. b) Testing the samples · The sample was placed in the ductility machine, and the mold was stretched by a speed of 5 cm/minute. When the sample is completely ruptured, the distance (cm) was recorded. 3. Softening point a) Preparing the samples 1. The sample was heated until it becomes movable. 2. Then, it was poured into rings molds, and allowed to cool in an atmospheric temperature for 30-40 minutes. b) Testing the samples 1. The mold was placed on a special frame, and then the frame was placed inside a beaker filled with water at temperature of 5oC. 2. The heat was applied to the beaker at a temperature of 5oC per minute. Until the material softens and then the ball allows to pass through the ring. 3. Finally, the temperature was recorded when the ball touches the bottom of the beaker. 4. Flash and Fire Point a) Preparing the samples 1. The sample was heated until it becomes movable. 2. The sample was poured into a cup, and allowed to cool in an atmospheric temperature for 30-40 minutes. b) Testing the samples 1. The cup was placed on the heating device, and then thermometer was placed inside the cup. 2. Heating was started until temperature reached 240°C, and then the flame started to pass on the material surface. Record the temperature when the flash first appears at the surface of the material in the cup (flash temperature). After that keep passing the flame until the material starts burning for at least 5 sec. Record the temperature at the point the burning happened (fire temperature). CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Introduction After designing and performing of the laboratory tests, the tests data were analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of the PCB on the asphalt concrete. A comparison was made between blank asphalt concrete and asphalt concrete modified by PCB. 4.2 Asphalt Concrete Tests The Marshall Method ASTM D1559 results are used to define the characteristics of asphalt concrete mixture. Two parameters were determined from Marshall Test results in this study to provide measure of the strength and flexibility of the mixture. In different regions and countries, different Standards and Grading systems are used for determining the quality of asphalt concrete and bituminous Binders. The recognized standards for Palestinian criteria are followed by LTA (PWD 1992), as shown in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Marshall Design criteria specified by LTA (PWD 1992) [15]. No. Mix Criteria Optimum Value 1. Compaction (No. of blows each side of specimen) 75 times 2. Specific Gravity (kg/m3) >2300 3. Flow 0.254 mm 2-4 4. Stability (kg) >1000 kg or 9 KN 5. Stiffness (kg/mm) >500 6. Void in total mix (VTM) or Air voids 3 – 5 % by volume 4.2.1 Theoretical considarations [16] 1. Stability (kg), which is the maximum load that asphalt concrete can carry out, is estimated as follows Stability Kg( ) = stability(guage)×1000× f g StabilityKg () =stability(guage)´1000´ f g ...……………………………….…..……(1) where: Stability (gauge) measured directly from Marshall test. Constant factor of Marshall Test (f) = 0.012795. Acceleration for gravity (g) = 9.81 m/s2. 2. Stiffness (kg/mm) of asphalt concrete can be estimated as follows Stiffness = stability(Kg) flow(mm) Stiffness= stability(Kg) flow(mm) ……………………..…………………………………………(2) where: Stability is measured as per Equation (1). Flow is measured directly from the Marshall test. 3. Bulk Specific Gravity (Gmb) of asphalt concrete can be estimated as follows Gmb = A B−D( )×1000m3 Gmb= A B-D () ´1000m 3 ………,.…………………..………………………….….……(3) where: A= mass of sample in air (g). B= mas of sample in SSD (g). D= mass of sample in water (g). 4. Maximum Specific Gravity (Gmm) can be calculated as follows (Gmm) = A A+D−E (Gmm)= A A+D-E …………………...………………………………………..………(4) where: A = mass of sample in air (g). D = mass of flask filled with water (g). E = mass of flask filled with sample and water (g). 5. Air Voids (%) can be estimated as follows Air voids (%) = Gmm Gmm−Gmb ⎛ ⎝ ⎜ ⎞ ⎠ ⎟×100% Gmm Gmm-Gmb æ è ç ö ø ÷ ´100% ………………………..………………………(5) Where: Gmm= Theoretical maximum specific gravity estimated by Equation (4). Gmb= Bulk specific gravity estimated by Equation (3). 4.2.2 Stability Test: Stability is ability to resist shoving and rutting under loads (traffic). It was calculated by using Equation (1). A stable pavement maintains its shape and smoothness under repeated loading. Because stability specifications for a pavement depend on the traffic expected to use the pavement, the requirements can be established only after a thorough traffic analysis. Stability specifications should be high enough to handle traffic adequately, but not higher than traffic conditions require. Too high stability value produces a pavement that is too stiff and therefore less durable than desired [17]. Panels a-c in Figure 4.1 show the relationship between stability and PCB particle size, concentration, and filler percentage. The solid line presented in the Figure represents the standard value of stability [15]. Figure 4.1: Stability test of asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM D1559 method. As seen in the Figure 4.1a the stability of the asphalt concrete at 0.075 mm particle size is much larger than the specification requirements. Furthermore the heterogeneous has a value much better of the standard but still not the best. According to part b) the optimum value of the stability was performed at 6 wt% of PCB, after that a dissociation may happened in the asphalt concrete because a negative linear relationship will be recorded and the bitumen couldn’t interact anymore with PCB. Moving to part c) a negative effect recorded after the optimum value of stability for 20% filler percentage of PCB. This may be due to the large amount of PCB with respect to aggregate, which make it insufficient for bitumen to perform interaction. 4.2.3 Flow Test The "stability" value represents the maximum load, while the "flow" value represents the vertical deformation, in a 0.01 in of the sample at the maximum load [18], its value was record directly from the Marshal machine. Panels a-c in Figure 4.2 show the flow as a function of PCB particle size, concentration and PCB filler percentage. Figure 4.2: Flow test on asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at 0.3 mm PCB particle size. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at 0.3 mm PCB particle size. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM D1559 method. In the Figure 4.2a shows a ductile specimen of asphalt concrete that was performed at optimum value of 0.075 and 0.3 mm particle size, while the heterogeneous has a moderate value of flow in the range of the standard flow (2-4 mm). According to part b) a brittle specimen was done at the minimum value of 6 wt% and 9 wt% of PCB, while the optimum value of 3 wt% was out of the range. For part c) the flow values from 5 wt% up to 20 wt% of filler percentage were within the range. 4.2.4 Stiffness Test The stiffness of bitumen matrixes can be considered a synthetic indicator of the structural properties of the mixtures because it is related to the capacity of the material to distribute traffic loads [19]. It was can be calculated by using Equation (2). Panels a-c in Figure 4.3 show the stiffness as a function of PCB particle size, concentration and PCB filler percentage. Figure 4.3: Stiffness test on asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per ASTM D1559 method. From Figure 4.3 the asphalt concrete modified by PCB provides a greater resistance because the PCB stiffens the concrete. Test results obtained on specimens tested for strength by Marshall Load test are generally higher with modified asphalt concrete. The stiffness has been increased about 20 percent than the blank one. The optimum value was achieved by 0.075 mm, 0.06% and 20% filler percentage that reflect a highest strength recorded at (2300 kg/m3). 4.2.5 Bulk specific Gravity Test (Gmb) Bulk specific Gravity test (Gmb) followed AASHTO T166 of each specimen was measured by determining the weight of specimen in three different conditions: Dry (no water in sample), Saturated surface dry (SSD, water fills the HMA air voids) and Submerged in water according to Equation (3). Panels a-c in Figure 4.4 show the bulk specific gravity as a function of PCB particle size, concentration and PCB filler percentage. Figure 4.4: Bulk specific gravity Test of asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per (AASHTO T166) method. As shown in Figure 4.4, the three parameters of PCB do not have any significant effect on the Gmb, even the blank one, maybe because PCB was mixed and soluble with the bitumen. Therefore, the PCB act as a binding agent between aggregate and bitumen and thus it will not has a significant effect on (Gmb) as the mold weight and volume remain the same. 4.2.6 Maximum specific gravity test (Gmm) Theoretical maximum specific gravity (Gmm) according to AASHTO T209 (ASTM D2041) was calculated by Equation (4) and used along with bulk specific gravity test values to calculate the air void percent for Marshall test according to (ASTM D1559) by using Equation (5). Air voids is defined as an indicator of the fatigue life, stability and stiffness. Hence, a decrease in air voids content will increase these values. Due to the low of air voids in the mixture of asphalt concrete during the preparation and placement, various forms of asphalt concrete damage can occur, such as rutting, shoving, and bleeding. The occurrence of low air void contents may originate as a result of an accidental increase in binder content or mix fines or both [20]. Panels a-b in Figure 4.5 shows the air voids as a function of PCB particle size, concentration and PCB filler wt.%. Figure 4.5: Percent of air voids of asphalt concrete. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values as per (ASTM D1559) method. Figure 4.5a shows increasing in air voids as particle size of PCB percent increased, where 0.075 mm and 0.3 mm particle size are within the range. Thus, smaller particle size mean higher stability, stiffness fatigue life. Figure 4.5b shows that adding PCB will decrease the air voids percent, where the percent still decrease until it reaches the optimum at 6 wt%, then increased at 9%, but still less than the value of virgin asphalt. Hence, adding PCB will improve the performance of the air voids percent, thus it affects its stability, stiffness and fatigue life positively. Also, replacing 20 wt% of fine filler by PCB will have an air voids value within the standard limit. 4.3 Determining the effect of each parameter of PCB by using ANOVA method In this section the effect of concentration, particle size and filler percentage of PCB on the asphalt concrete criteria (stability, flow, stiffness and bulk specific gravity) were determined by using ANOVA method for one way, as shown in Table 4.4. Also, a histogram in Figure 4.6 was shown to see data errors of the digital devices. Table 4.4: The effect of parameters of PCB on asphalt concrete criteria by using ANOVA No. Parameters Criteria Stability Flow Stiffness Bulk specific gravity F F F F 1. Particle size (mm) 20.9 1.63 5.51 0.8 2. Concentration (%) 1.38 0.96 1.65 3.59 3. Filler Percentage (%) 2.6 0.91 1.82 1.17 6 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 - 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 2 . 0 1 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s s t a b i l i t y ( K g ) ) Figure 4.6: Residual histogram for the effect of particle size of PCB on the stability (Kg) of asphalt concrete. Experimental conditions: PCB percentage 6 wt%. From Table 4.4 it can be noticed that the highest value can affect on the stability, flow and stiffness was performed by parameter of particle size of PCB because it will fill the porosity between the voids in each specimen. On the other hand the lowest effect can be achieved by filler percentage of PCB due to the same act of fine aggregate so it has not any considerable effect on each criteria, while the concentration parameter has a moderate value between them. Figure 4.5 shows a histogram of stability with an average error of zero, and the variability is distributed almost normally on both sides for the particle size of the PCB of asphalt concrete. (More details in Appendix 2). 4.4 Optimization Weighted sum method (WSM) By using weighted sum method [21], the optimum content mixture of particle size, concentration and filler percentage of PCB on asphalt concrete shown in Figure 4.7 was determined in order to have the best value for each criterion (stability, flow, stiffness and bulk specific gravity). (More details in Appendix 3) Figure 4.7: The scores of effects of PCB on asphalt concrete with different factors. a) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. b) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. c) Effect of filler percentage of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. From the Figure 4.7a 6 wt% concentration of PCB contribute with the highest and better effect on the density, flow and stability, with respect to their first score 10%, 25% and 65wt%. While the second score has distributed the score with 70% for the stability and the rest of percent divided equally on the flow and density. Moving to part b) 0.075 mm of particle size of PCB has the highest effect for both scores, also 0.3 mm has nearly close to the highest one. For the heterogeneous particle it is contributed with a moderate value between 0.075 and 1.18 mm particle sizes. Finally for part c) 30 wt% of filler percentage contributes with the highest score which is equal approximately 0.7 for both scores, but this value is less than both of concentration and particle size. Therefore, with respect to these results, the best asphalt concrete mixture with PCB can be achieved by adding 6 wt% of concentration and 0.075 mm particle size of PCB, as a particle size decreased it can penetrate positively between aggregate and bitumen with more strength, powerful, and long life time for asphalt concrete. Figure 5.8 shows the difference between the blank asphalt concrete and the modified asphalt concrete after Marshall Test. As shown in Figure 4.7 the blank sample has a huge cracking after 1117.1 Kg of load, while the modified one with PCB, the load reaches around 7515.5 Kg and no cracking was observed. Indicating that adding PCB into the asphalt concrete matrix would enhance its mechanical properties Figure 4.8: Difference between blank and modified samples with PCB after Marshall test. 4.5 Bitumen Tests [22] In this section the effects of PCB on different properties of virgin bitumen matrix were studied. Consistency tests should be done on both of the original bitumen and the modified bitumen with PCB. The tests considered are as follows: 4.5.1 Ductility Test The ductility test measures the distance that a standard asphalt sample will stretch and elongate without breaking under a standard testing condition (5 cm/min at 25 °C), it is generally considered that an asphalt with a very low ductility will have poor adhesive properties and thus poor performance in service, since it can not bear high load on it. 4.5.2 Penetration Test Penetration value is a measure of hardness or consistency of bituminous material, it is the vertical distance traversed or penetrated by the point of a standard needle in to the bituminous material under specific conditions of load, time and temperature, The value of the penetration indicates the stiffness of the bitumen, thus the higher the penetration value, the softer the bitumen. 4.5.3 Softening, Flash and Fire Points Test Softening point test is used as an indication of the temperature of bitumen, having this property helps in improving pavement performance against rutting through proper bitumen selection, thus the higher the softening point, the more difficult for the bitumen to melt and allow rutting to occur. While The flash point is the temperature at which the vapor of bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions, the fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns, at high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out volatiles, and these volatiles catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade, so higher flash point mean more safety. 4.5 Analyses of Bitumen Tests After performing the aforementioned tests, data results must be analyzed to compare the virgin bitumen matrix and bitumen modified by PCB with experimental condition of constant particle size of 0.3 mm and different concentration as it shown in Figure 4.9. Figure 4.9: Bitumen Tests for effect of concentration of PCB on bitumen for a) ductility, b) penetration, c) softening point, d) flash point test e) fire point test. Experimental conditions: PCB particle sizes 0.3 mm. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard value [11]. As seen in Figure 4.9a the optimum value was recorded at virgin bitumen, then a negative linear relation was recorded with less than the standard of elongation of 100 cm then the bitumen quality will consider to be law and easily to break. In Figure 5.9b, a positive linear relation was achieved with optimum value at 3 wt%, this mean that adding PCB affect positively on the penetration values, hence increasing bitumen hardness and consistency. Figure 4.9c shows that the values of the softening temperature decreases by increasing the percentage of PCB, where the maximum value is for the blank bitumen, which means that the PCB will affect positively on the softening temperature values, hence increasing the bitumen performance against rutting. In part d), the value of the flash point increases until it reaches the optimum at 3 wt%, then it decreases slightly at 6 wt%, and finally it significantly drops at 9 wt%, that means adding PCB will improve the flash point between 3 wt% up to 6 wt%, thus more safety, but for higher percentages the PCB will affect negatively on the flash point then hazards maybe happen. For the last part e) the value of fire temperature is increasing until it reaches its optimum value at 6 wt% then it decreases slightly at 9%, which means, that adding PCB will improve the performance related to the fire temperature, thus more safety. The virgin bitumen matrix was also compared with the bitumen modified by PCB under experimental condition of constant concentration 6 wt% and different particle size as it shown in Figure 4.10. Figure 4.10: Bitumen Tests for effect of particle size of PCB on bitumen for a) ductility test b) penetration, c) softening point, d) flash point, e) fire point. Experimental conditions: PCB concentration 6 wt%. The solid horizontal lines represent the standard values [11]. As seen in Figure 4.10a the ductility decreases by increases the size of PCB particles, where the optimum value is achieved at 0.075 mm. However, the value of elongation at 0.075 and at 0.3 is acceptable, but the value at 1.18 is rejected according to the solid line that represents the standard value of softening point. For Figure 5.10b, increasing PCB particle size increases the value of penetration until it reaches optimum value at 1.18 mm, which means it affects negatively on the bitumen hardness and consistency. The solid horizontal line in the Figure represents the standard value of penetration test (>350 mm) [11]. For part c) the values of softening point reaches its optimum value at the smallest particle size 0.075 mm. However, the size of the PCB particles has insignificant effect on the softening point. For part d) the variation in PCB particle size does not have a significant effect on the flash point. For the final part e) the value of fire temperature decreases by increasing the size of the particles, where the optimum value of the point was recorded at 0.075 mm. While the decreasing in the fire point value is small, the particle size does not affect considerably. By using weighted sum method [21], the optimum content of PCB particle size and its concentration on bitumen matrix that shown in Figure 4.11 was determined in order to have the best value for each criterion of bitumen tests. Figure 4.11: The scores of effects of PCB on Bitumen matrix with different factors. a) Effect of PCB particle size at fixed PCB concentration of 6 wt%. b) Effect of concentration of PCB at PCB particle size 0.3 mm. With respect to these results, the best bitumen content with PCB was achieved by adding 6 wt% of concentration and 0.3 mm particle size of PCB. For Table 4.5 shows comparisons between standard criteria of bitumen test and the optimum results of this study. Table 4.5: Comparison of requirements and optimum results for bitumen criteria test [11]. No. Test Name Method Standard Value Optimum Value 6 wt% of PCB concentration 0.3 mm of PCB particle size 1. Ductility, 77 F, 5 cm/min D113 ASTM T51AASHTO 100 cm 55 cm 80 cm 2. Penetration, 77 F, 100 g, 5 sec ASTM D5-73 AASHTO T 49 >350 290 290 cm 3. Softening Point (°C) ASTM 36-76 <80 50 °C 50 °C 4. Flash and fire point, °F or °C BS 4689: 1971, ASTM D 92-66; IP36/67 >(177 °C) or 350 °F Flash p. 280°C Fire p. 315 °C 280 °C 314 °C CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS The PCB of waste automobile tires may be one of the most desirable techniques for the economic and environmental stand point. According to our project adding PCB as a by-product from treatment of waste tires to the asphalt concrete will improve its properties and enhance the service life of it, because PCB a hydrophobic material that is prefer to wet by hydrocarbon type fluids such as asphalt (bitumen), so far makes the PCB properly dispersed as a part of the asphalt concrete. According to that the PCB has a beneficial effect on the mix criteria of asphalt concrete, which are stability, flow, stiffness, bulk specific gravity, and air voids. Furthermore, PCB has a positive trend on the bitumen tests, where the virgin bitumen is successfully added and mixed with PCB with their respective percentages. The properties of the bitumen with PCB additive are determined. For softening point, flash and fire point tests are proved by adding PCB additive that the values are better than the values obtained from the virgin bitumen. Thus, by using PCB additives, bitumen’s resistance upon rutting and cracking is improved. Also, it has low cost comparing with commercial aggregate at least for now. Lastly, a PCB content of 6% by weight with particle size 0.075 mm on asphalt concrete will recommended to have the best enhancement for asphalt concrete criteria by having higher resistance to deformation, better age resistance and adhesion between aggregates, so far prevention it from cracking. CHAPTER SIX RECOMMENDATIONS Because of the characteristics of PCB, several problems become evident during this study and other proposal might be followed. Therefore, many recommendations were considered in this study as follows: 1. Dealing with PCB requires special and careful controlled procedure because most of the carbon black content was disturbed in air during the process. Thus, the percentage of the carbon black added was lesser than the firstly determined. Since the carbon black was so lightweight, it tends to fly out. 2. According to bitumen a sufficient mixing must be provided in the laboratory, because a separation of PCB in bitumen might happen. 3. An air hoods must be provided in the laboratory to avoid the bad smell of asphalt concrete during working. 4. Additional laboratory studies for more range sizes and concentration of PCB should be considered. 5. Treatment of PCB before adding it on asphalt concrete by extracting the metal of Cr, Cu, Ni, Fe, Cd, Z, from PCB would aspect to have different effect that is worth studying. 6. It could be sufficient way to mix PCB with other powder such as sand or the remnants of the stone saws, and then adding this mixture to asphalt concrete. CHAPTER SEVEN REFERENCES [1] Center for automotive study. (2008).  Al-Arab International. Available: http://www.aawsat.com/details.asp?section=46&article=459264&issueno=10676#. Last accessed 4th February 2014. [2] Palestinian Center for Statistics. (2011). Annual Report. Transportation and Communication Statistics in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.. 1 (1), p1-11. [3] Alshikh, F. (2012). Waste tires threat to the environment in Arab world. Elaf. 4235 (1), p1-3. [4] Gottlieb, B., GG Steven and LG Evans. (2010). Coal Ash. Physicians for Social Responsibility and Earthjustice. 1 (1), p1-139. [5] Lechtenberg, D. (2011). Tyres as an alternative fuel. Global Cemfuels. 1 (1), p1-8.. [6] Salgado, R and CW Lovell. (1996). Laboratory Study on the Use of Tire Shreds and Rubber-Sand in Backfilled and Reinforced Soil Applications.Joint Transportation Research Program. 1 (3), p1-196. [7] Zafar, S. (2013). Production and applications of crumb rubber.Ecomena. 1 (1), p1-9. [8] Nagar, S.S.. (2013). Tyre pyrolyis. Divyainternational. 1 (1), p1-17. [9] Eastern Metropolitan Regional Council. (2009). Resource recovery project. Available: http://www.emrc.org.au/resource-recovery-project-intro-page.html. Last accessed 9th November 2013. [10] Halaweh, A (2013). Current treatment of waste tires in Palestine. Palestine: Internal report. Council Solid waste, Palestine. [11] Alahmad, A (2013). Highway Pavements and Materials Lab Manual, An-Najah National University, Palestine. p1-73. [12] Chilingarian, G.V. and TF yen (1978). bitumen, asphalts and tar sands. North Holland: Elsevier. p27-307. [13] Abdullah, A (2008). Application of Superpave System for Binder Selection Based on Local Conditions. An-Najah National University, Palestine. p1-103. [14] Smith, D (2010). ELE company instruments. 2nd ed. England: ELE company. p102-185. [15]PWD (1992). PWD General Specification. Public Works Department, Singapore 1987 (with amendments, 1992). [16] Brown, E.R., PS Kandhal, FL Roberts, YR Kim, DY Lee and TW Kennedy (2009). Hot mix asphalt material, mixture design and construction. 3rd ed. Maryland: Napa Research and Education Foundation. p1-400. [17] Babish, A. (2011). Asphalt Concrete Mixture. Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation.1(2),p1-10. [18] Kurtis, K. (2013). Asphalt and Asphalt Concrete. Asphalt institute. 1 (3), p1-43. [19] Meijide, B.G. and I. Pérez. (2014). Construction and Building Materials.Elsevier. 51 (3), p267–277. [20] Mcdanie, R.S. and E. Levenberg. (2013). Risk Management of Low Air Void Asphalt Concrete Mixtures. Joint Transportation Research Program. 1 (1), p1-16. [21] Wang, J.J, YY Jing, CF Zhang and JH Zhao . (2009). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Elsevier. 13 (3), p2263–2278. [22] Mathew, V.T. and KV Krishnarao. (2006). Pavement Material Bitumen.Nptel. 1 (23), p1-8. Appendices Appendix 1: The accumulation of PCB particle size by using shaker. Sieve mm Sample 1 (g) Sample 2 (g) Average (g) Weight (%) Accumulation (g) Accumulation (%) Passing (%) 2٫36 24 16 20 0٫02 20 2٫00 97٫99 1٫18 87 64 75٫5 0٫08 95٫5 9٫57 90٫42 0٫6 255 251 253 0٫25 348٫5 34٫93 65٫06 0٫3 271 277 274 0٫27 622٫5 62٫40 37٫59 0٫15 208 188 198 0٫19 820٫5 82٫25 17٫74 0٫075 101 120 110٫5 0٫11 931 93٫33 6٫66 Pan 60 73 66٫5 0٫06 997٫5 100 0 Appendix 2: Minitab Result by using ANOVA 2.1 Effect of concentration of PCB. 2.1.1 One-way ANOVA: density versus concentration of CB Source DF SS MS F P Concentration of CB 3 26162 8721 3.95 0.053 Error 8 17665 2208 Total 11 43827 S = 46.99 R-Sq = 59.69% R-Sq(adj) = 44.58% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev ------+---------+---------+---------+--- 0.00 3 2226.7 68.6 (--------*--------) 0.03 3 2240.5 17.4 (--------*--------) 0.06 3 2224.4 28.9 (--------*--------) 0.09 3 2123.6 54.7 (--------*--------) ------+---------+---------+---------+--- 2100 2170 2240 2310 Pooled StDev = 47.0 5 0 2 5 0 - 2 5 - 5 0 - 7 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s d e n s i t y ) Figure 1: Residual histogram for the effect of concentration of PCB on the density of asphalt concrete. 2.1.2 One-way ANOVA: Flow versus concentration of CB Source DF SS MS F P Concentration of CB 3 15.33 5.11 0.96 0.456 Error 8 42.51 5.31 Total 11 57.84 S = 2.305 R-Sq = 26.50% R-Sq(adj) = 0.00% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev --------+---------+---------+---------+- 0.00 3 5.800 1.709 (-----------*-----------) 0.03 3 6.433 3.539 (------------*-----------) 0.06 3 4.200 2.400 (-----------*-----------) 0.09 3 3.667 0.231 (------------*-----------) --------+---------+---------+---------+- 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 Pooled StDev = 2.305 4 3 2 1 0 - 1 - 2 - 3 5 4 3 2 1 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s f l o w ) Figure 2: Residual histogram for the effect of concentration of PCB on the flow of asphalt concrete. 2.1.3 One-way ANOVA: stability (Kg) versus concentration of CB Source DF SS MS F P Concentration of CB 3 4836568 1612189 1.38 0.318 Error 8 9375990 1171999 Total 11 14212558 S = 1083 R-Sq = 34.03% R-Sq(adj) = 9.29% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev ------+---------+---------+---------+--- 0.00 3 3105 1215 (-----------*-----------) 0.03 3 3317 1496 (-----------*-----------) 0.06 3 4752 945 (-----------*-----------) 0.09 3 3629 286 (-----------*-----------) ------+---------+---------+---------+--- 2400 3600 4800 6000 Pooled StDev = 1083 1 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 3 . 0 2 . 5 2 . 0 1 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s s t a b i l i t y ( K g ) ) Figure 3: Residual histogram for the effect of concentration of PCB on the stability of asphalt concrete. 2.1.4 One-way ANOVA: stiffness versus concentration of PCB Source DF SS MS F P concentration of PCB 3 1324782 441594 1.65 0.253 Error 8 2138827 267353 Total 11 3463610 S = 517.1 R-Sq = 38.25% R-Sq(adj) = 15.09% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev -----+---------+---------+---------+---- 0.00 3 438.7 240.9 (----------*-----------) 0.03 3 410.8 46.0 (-----------*----------) 0.06 3 1235.5 1004.4 (-----------*----------) 0.09 3 758.8 20.2 (-----------*----------) -----+---------+---------+---------+---- 0 600 1200 1800 Pooled StDev = 517.1 1 2 0 0 8 0 0 4 0 0 0 - 4 0 0 - 8 0 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s s t i f f n e s s ) Figure 4: Residual histogram for the effect of concentration of PCB on the stiffness of asphalt concrete. 2.2 Effect of particle size of PCB of asphalt concrete for one-way ANOVA test 2.2.1 One-way ANOVA: density versus particle size Source DF SS MS F P particle size 2 6625 3312 0.80 0.494 Error 6 24994 4166 Total 8 31619 S = 64.54 R-Sq = 20.95% R-Sq(adj) = 0.00% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev ----+---------+---------+---------+----- 0.075 3 2227.1 18.3 (------------*------------) 0.300 3 2162.9 75.8 (------------*------------) 1.180 3 2180.1 80.1 (------------*------------) ----+---------+---------+---------+----- 2100 2170 2240 2310 Pooled StDev = 64.5 5 0 2 5 0 - 2 5 - 5 0 - 7 5 - 1 0 0 2 . 0 1 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s d e n s i t y ) Figure 5: Residual histogram for the effect of particle size of PCB on the density of asphalt concrete. 2.2.2 One-way ANOVA: flow(mm) versus particle size Source DF SS MS F P Particle size 2 20.49 10.24 1.63 0.273 Error 6 37.79 6.30 Total 8 58.28 S = 2.510 R-Sq = 35.15% R-Sq(adj) = 13.54% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev ---------+---------+---------+---------+ 0.075 3 5.167 2.743 (-----------*-----------) 0.300 3 3.733 1.137 (----------*-----------) 1.180 3 7.400 3.175 (-----------*----------) ---------+---------+---------+---------+ 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 Pooled StDev = 2.510 4 3 2 1 0 - 1 - 2 3 . 0 2 . 5 2 . 0 1 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s f l o w ( m m ) ) Figure 6: Residual histogram for the effect of particle size of PCB on the flow of asphalt concrete. 2.2.3 One-way ANOVA: stability(Kg) versus particle size Source DF SS MS F P Particle size 2 16110336 8055168 24.09 0.001 Error 6 2006562 334427 Total 8 18116898 S = 578.3 R-Sq = 88.92% R-Sq(adj) = 85.23% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev -+---------+---------+---------+-------- 0.075 3 4952.2 131.7 (------*------) 0.300 3 4563.2 733.3 (------*------) 1.180 3 1939.6 669.4 (------*------) -+---------+---------+---------+-------- 1200 2400 3600 4800 Pooled StDev = 578.3 6 0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 - 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 2 . 0 1 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s s t a b i l i t y ( K g ) ) Figure 7: Residual histogram for the effect of particle size of PCB on the stability (Kg) of asphalt concrete. 2.2.4 One-way ANOVA: stiffness versus particle size Source DF SS MS F P particle size 2 1058071 529036 5.51 0.044 Error 6 576137 96023 Total 8 1634208 S = 309.9 R-Sq = 64.75% R-Sq(adj) = 52.99% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev ----+---------+---------+---------+----- 0.075 3 861.1 365.6 (--------*--------) 0.300 3 1001.9 383.1 (--------*--------) 1.180 3 214.4 87.2 (-------*--------) ----+---------+---------+---------+----- 0 500 1000 1500 Pooled StDev = 309.9 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 - 4 0 0 2 . 0 1 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s s t i f f n e s s ) Figure 8: Residual histogram for the effect of particle size of PCB on the stiffness of asphalt concrete. 2.3 Effect of filler percentage of PCB of asphalt concrete for one-way ANOVA test 2.3.1 One-way ANOVA: density versus filler percentage Source DF SS MS F P Filler percentage 4 114544 28636 1.71 0.241 Error 8 134137 16767 Total 12 248681 S = 129.5 R-Sq = 46.06% R-Sq(adj) = 19.09% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev ------+---------+---------+---------+--- 0.05 3 2078.0 216.7 (--------*--------) 0.10 3 2199.6 52.6 (--------*--------) 0.20 3 2038.0 126.9 (--------*--------) 0.25 2 2091.5 30.9 (----------*---------) 0.30 2 1896.8 39.2 (----------*---------) ------+---------+---------+---------+--- 1800 2000 2200 2400 Pooled StDev = 129.5 1 0 0 0 - 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s d e n s i t y ) Figure 9: Residual histogram for the effect of filler percentage of PCB on the density of asphalt concrete. 2.3.2 One-way ANOVA: flow versus filler percentage Source DF SS MS F P Filler percentage 4 5.81 1.45 0.91 0.502 Error 8 12.78 1.60 Total 12 18.59 S = 1.264 R-Sq = 31.26% R-Sq(adj) = 0.00% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev -+---------+---------+---------+-------- 0.05 3 4.767 1.966 (----------*----------) 0.10 3 4.000 1.000 (-----------*----------) 0.20 3 2.967 1.193 (----------*----------) 0.25 2 3.750 0.354 (-------------*-------------) 0.30 2 4.600 0.283 (-------------*------------) -+---------+---------+---------+-------- 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 Pooled StDev = 1.264 2 . 0 1 . 5 1 . 0 0 . 5 0 . 0 - 0 . 5 - 1 . 0 - 1 . 5 4 3 2 1 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s f l o w ) Figure 10: Residual histogram for the effect of filler percentage of PCB on the flow of asphalt concrete. 2.3.3 One-way ANOVA: stability (Kg) versus filler percentage Source DF SS MS F P Filler percentage 4 25820918 6455229 2.60 0.117 Error 8 19881245 2485156 Total 12 45702163 S = 1576 R-Sq = 56.50% R-Sq(adj) = 34.75% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev -+---------+---------+---------+-------- 0.05 3 2983 477 (-------*-------) 0.10 3 3428 397 (--------*-------) 0.20 3 6221 2246 (--------*-------) 0.25 2 4693 2767 (----------*---------) 0.30 2 2270 1169 (---------*---------) -+---------+---------+---------+-------- 0 2500 5000 7500 Pooled StDev = 1576 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 - 3 0 0 0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s s t a b i l i t y ( K g ) ) Figure 11: Residual histogram for the effect of filler percentage of PCB on the stability of asphalt concrete. 2.3.4 One-way ANOVA: stiffness versus filler percentage Source DF SS MS F P filler percentage 4 4593955 1148489 1.82 0.217 Error 8 5035005 629376 Total 12 9628960 S = 793.3 R-Sq = 47.71% R-Sq(adj) = 21.56% Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev ---------+---------+---------+---------+ 0.05 3 544.3 234.8 (---------*----------) 0.10 3 700.1 263.1 (----------*----------) 0.20 3 1994.4 1466.9 (----------*----------) 0.25 2 990.9 659.3 (------------*------------) 0.30 2 385.2 218.6 (------------*------------) ---------+---------+---------+---------+ 0 1000 2000 3000 Pooled StDev = 793.3 1 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 R e s i d u a l F r e q u e n c y H i s t o g r a m ( r e s p o n s e i s s t i f f n e s s ) Figure 12: Residual histogram for the effect of filler percentage of PCB on the stiffness of asphalt concrete. Appendix 3: Scores data of criteria of asphalt concrete using WSM Scores for changing concentration with constant particle size Particle size (mm) Conc. Density (Kg/mm³) Flow (mm) Stability (Kg) Benefit density Cost flow Benefit stability Score 0.3 0 2246.60 7.6 3757.46 0.83 0.33 0.53 0.51 0.3 0 2283.09 5.6 1702.7 1 0.56 0 0.24 0.3 0.03 2259.61 10.4 5006.48 0.89 0 0.86 0.65 0.3 0.03 2236.29 5.3 2784.85 0.79 0.59 0.28 0.41 0.3 0.03 2225.56 3.6 2160.34 0.74 0.79 0.12 0.35 0.3 0.06 2252.83 1.8 5541.02 0.86 1 1 0.98 0.3 0.06 2225.14 4.2 5009.09 0.74 0.72 0.86 0.81 0.3 0.06 2195.12 6.6 3705.32 0.60 0.44 0.52 0.51 0.3 0.09 2154.39 3.4 3315.49 0.42 0.81 0.42 0.51 0.3 0.09 2155.96 3.8 3874.80 0.43 0.76 0.57 0.60 0.3 0.09 2060.49 3.8 3697.49 0 0.77 0.52 0.52 Score for changing particle size with constant concentration Particle size (mm) Conc. Density (Kg/mm³) Flow mm Stability (Kg) Benefit density Cost flow Benefit stability Score 0.075 0.06 2206.01 4 4810.91 0.85 0.85 0.89 0.87 0.075 0.06 2239.01 3.2 4973.88 0.98 0.95 0.93 0.94 0.075 0.06 2236.34 8.3 5071.67 0.97 0.33 0.96 0.80 0.3 0.06 2185.14 5 4657.07 0.76 0.73 0.85 0.81 0.3 0.06 2225.14 2.8 5245.07 0.93 1 1 0.99 0.3 0.06 2078.52 3.4 3787.45 0.33 0.92 0.63 0.68 1.18 0.06 2242.26 11 2083.42 1 0 0.22 0.24 1.18 0.06 2208.37 6.2 2525.40 0.86 0.58 0.33 0.44 1.18 0.06 2089.71 5 1209.9 0.38 0.73 0 0.22 Hetero. 0.06 2113.65 4 2842.22 0.47 0.85 0.40 0.52 Hetero. 0.06 2047.16 9 2855.25 0.20 0.24 0.41 0.34 Hetero. 0.06 1997.13 3.3 1966.08 0 0.94 0.19 0.36 Score for changing filler percentage with constant particle size Particle size (mm) Filler% of fine Density (Kg/m3) Flow (mm) Stability (Kg) Benefit density cost flow Benefit stability Score 0.3 5% 2193.02 3.3 2998.67 0.92 0.68 0.74 0.74 0.3 5% 1828.08 7 2499.33 0 0 0.82 0.53 0.3 5% 2213.04 4 3452.38 0.96 0.55 0.66 0.67 0.3 10% 2225.53 5 3110.79 1 0.37 0.72 0.66 0.3 10% 2234.10 4 3299.84 1.02 0.55 0.69 0.69 0.3 10% 2139.03 3 3873.50 0.78 0.74 0.59 0.65 0.3 20% 1954.86 3.8 3627.09 0.32 0.59 0.64 0.59 0.3 20% 1975.12 1.6 7517.54 0.37 1 0 0.28 0.3 20% 2184.02 3.5 7517.54 0.89 0.64 0 0.25 0.3 25% 2069.67 4 2736.61 0.60 0.55 0.78 0.71 0.3 25% 2113.33 3.5 6649.23 0.71 0.648 0.14 0.32 0.3 25% 2091.50 3.75 4692.92 0.66 0.60 0.46 0.51 0.3 30% 1924.52 4.4 3096.45 0.24 0.48 0.72 0.61 0.3 30% 1869.02 4.8 1443.27 0.10 0.40 1 0.76 Appendix 4: Scores data of criteria of bitumen test by using WSM. 1-3hodo bs t5lse mn WSM ( T2kde mn elle e3tbrto benefit welle e3tbrto cost) o b3d ma t5lse sho4ol el excel erfqeeee b appendix 4 ! o b3dhaa t2akde mn el discussion lal score eno sa7 2- ay eshe bel a7mar eno chaykee 3leeeh (bkon ya 4yrto ya shakke feh) so t2kde mno b m3lomatoooo !!!!!!! 3- figure el bulk specific gravity -( eme mn el figure klmt density o 7o6e bdalaha Bulk specific gravity !! (ma 3nde 5asyt print screen asfe mshan hek ma 3mltoo) :( 4- 3nd el figure ta3 bitumen test ( 3nd el depth 7ote unit cm msh mm !! ) ya emma 5leeh mm bs 7o6e 100, 200, 300 ….. deal !!! 5- o ahm eshee bs t5lsee mno kollo rode eb3tele eyaaaah ashayk a5er eshe eno ma fe eshe na2es (3dd saf7at , rqm figurat, fshe eshe nazl aw tale3 ) droore ard ashayk 3leeh deal !!!!! Running tracks Children’s play grounds Indoor or outdoor Tiles/pavers Sport’s arenas Road furniture Artificial turf a b C a b a b c c a b c a b b a c b a Blank one Modified one b a b c d e d b a c PAGE XI _1458931529 _1458931533 _1458931535 _1458931537 _1458931538 _1458931539 _1458931536 _1458931534 _1458931531 _1458931532 _1458931530 _1333620585.unknown _1457820675 _1458931528 _1333621100.unknown _1333446780.unknown _1333447310.unknown _1333446191.unknown