An-Najah National University Faculty of Graduate Studies Translating Terms of Islamic Architecture: A Semiotic Study By Taqwa Abdel-Hadi Mohammad Ateeq Supervisor Dr. Nabil M. Alawi This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of the Master Degree of Applied Linguistics and Translation, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University, Nablus-Palestine. 2019 ii Translating Terms of Islamic Architecture: A Semiotic Study By Taqwa Abdel-hadi Ateeq This Thesis was defended Successfully on 19\6\2019 and approved by: Defense Committee Members Signature 1. Dr. Nabil M. Alawi / Supervisor ………………….. 2. Dr. Ahmad Ayyad / External Examiner ………………….. 3. Dr. Rami Qawariq / Internal Examiner ………………….. iii Dedication To those who constantly search for the original beauty, who find serenity and happiness in Art. To those whom I am proud of, and who always work to make me proud of myself, my parents, my lovely sister and my brothers. To my soul mate, Majdi and our angel, Salma. I dedicate this work. iv Acknowledgement I would like to thank my great supervisor Dr. Nabil Alawi whose advice was extremely helpful. I highly appreciate his support and quick feedback. I also thank Dr. Ahmad Ayyad, Dr. Rami Qwariq and Dr. Sufyan Abu Arrah for their critical reviews to enrich this project. I am also grateful to Dr. Rami Qwariq for his enthusiasm and encouragement since the first time he heard about this work. v اإلقرار :الرسالة التي تحمل عنوان ىذه نا الموقع أدناه مقدمأ Translating Terms of Islamic Architecture: A Semiotic Study ما تمت اإلشارة إليو اقر بان ما اشتممت عميو ىذه الرسالة إنما ىو نتاج جيدي الخاص، باستثناء أو بحث عممي عممية حيثما ورد، وان ىذه الرسالة ككل أو جزء منيا لم يقدم من قبل لنيل أية درجة أو بحثي لدى أية مؤسسة تعميمية أو بحثية أخرى. Declaration The work provided in this thesis, unless otherwise referenced, is the researcher's own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or qualification. Student's name: :اسم الطالب Signature: :التوقيع Date: :التاريخ vi Table of Contents No Subject Page Dedication III Acknowledgement IV Declaration V Table of contents VI Main concepts VIII Abstract IX Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Purpose of the study 3 1.3 Research questions 4 1.4 Statement of the problem 4 1.5 Significance of the study 6 1.6 Limitations of the study 7 1.7 Methodology 8 1.8 Layout of the study 11 Chapter Two: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework 12 2.1 Review of related literature 12 2.1.1 Terms of architecture in translation studies 12 2.1.2 Terms of Islamic architecture 15 2.1.3 About Western studies of Islamic architecture 17 2.2 Theoretical framework 21 2.2.1 Signs and signification 21 2.2.2 Saussure's concept of the sign‟s value 24 2.2.3 Lotman‟s concept of semiosphere 26 2.2.4 Hatim‟s model of semiotic translation 27 Chapter Three: Data Analysis 30 3.1 Signs in the intersecting sphere of Arabic and English cultural systems 30 3.2 Transferring signs of Islamic architecture outside its semiosphere 35 3.2.1 Presenting a Western sign as an equivalent 36 3.2.1.1 Signs of different designs 39 3.2.1.2 Signs of different functions 44 3.2.1.3 Signs of different designs and functions 45 3.2.2 Descriptions lack the sign‟s value 51 3.2.3 Inaccurate sign representation 58 3.2.4 Foreign signs without explanation 61 3.2.5 Images as compensation 65 vii 3.2.6 Suggested translations 67 3.3 Transferring signs of Islamic architecture back into its original semiosphere 71 3.3.1 Strategies used in back translation process 71 3.3.1.1 Transference and naturalization 72 3.3.1.2 Descriptive equivalence 73 3.3.1.3 Cultural equivalence 75 3.3.1.4 Literal translation 77 3.3.2 Incorrect identification of the sign 79 3.3.2.1 Signs‟ shifts 79 3.3.2.2 Lack of knowledge 81 Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations 83 4.1 Conclusion 83 4.2 Recommendations 86 References 88 صخهًنا ة viii Main Concepts 1. Culture: „the way of life and its manifestations‟ which include material production and social structure (Newmark, 1999: 95). It becomes like a heritage to a particular community. 2. Islamic Architecture: the architectural production of the Islamic community from the rise of Islam in the 7 th century (Harris, 2006). In this study, the period is limited to the end of 19 th century. 3. Semiotics: the field of knowledge that analyzes the way we use and interpret signs in relation to the culture where these signs are used (Paul, 2001). 4. Sign: according to Saussure (1995), it is a psychological entity that unites a concept with a sound image. Semiosphere: Lotman defines this concept „the semiotic space necessary for the existence and functioning of language‟ (1990: 123). He explains it further as a common experience that people should have to be able to communicate with each other using the same signs. 5. Linguistic community: a number of people who are considered, and believe themselves to be, speakers of one language (Paul, 2001). ix Translating Terms of Islamic Architecture: A Semiotic Study By Taqwa Abdel-Hadi Ateeq Supervisor Dr. Nabil M. Alawi Abstract This study examines the process of translating terms of Islamic architecture from Arabic into English and vice versa. Three English books about Islamic architecture are investigated, in addition to Arabic translated versions of two of them. The translation strategies used in these texts are presented to explain how the TL expressions cause problems in signification. Cultural equivalents signify a TL sign which differs from the original in its design or function. Most of the descriptions lack the sign's value, which is its distinctive feature. They are confusing for the reader, as they do not enable him/her to signify the intended element. The examined texts also show use of transference strategy, even though the transliterated term does not function in the TL culture. This study suggests to apply Basel Hatim's model of semiotic translation, besides Saussure's concept of the sign's value to produce translations which help the reader to perceive an accurate conceptual image of the transferred sign. This study also indicates that these problems are aggravated when translating the English expressions back into Arabic. Translators should use the original Arabic terms employed to signify these signs instead of applying translation strategies as if signs of Islamic architecture were foreign to the Arabic linguistic community. 1 Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Overview Islamic architecture occupies an important status in the architectural productions of various communities over time. Despite the fact that it has been affected by previous civilizations, its peculiar designs have been widely recognized. During each Islamic period, new creative designs were introduced. The Umayyads, Abbasids, Mamluks and Ottomans were inventive in this field, so that we nowadays can acknowledge the unique styles that differentiate each era. However, Islamic architecture in general is characterized by common elements like vaulted roofs, various shapes of arches, and spectacular decorative styles (Harris, 2006). The architectural production generated an abundance of terms used to refer to the new elements, styles and processes. These terms are diverse and belong to varied kinds of architecture: religious, military, residential, commercial and funerary ( 0222انحذاد، ). Some terms of Islamic architecture are originally imported from other languages, as a result of the Islamic spread over non-Arab areas and the cultural exchange that occurred then ( 0228انحذاد، ). Nevertheless, there are numerous Arabic terms, since the center of Islamic civilization was, and still is, in the Arab world. The western interest in the field of Islamic architecture started to grow not long ago. In addition to the fact that Islamic architecture provides creative architectural designs which deserve to be studied, it became a rich 0 field of research to study the Islamic civilization. It constitutes a significant part of the cultural identity of the Islamic community. Architecture of this community reflects their beliefs and morals, as religion usually shaped the distinctive, new styles that meet their needs ( 0218حغٍ، ). This growing interest consequently required translating the terms of Islamic architecture into different languages. The absence of many Islamic elements from the western culture hinders easy, complete comprehension of their characteristics. Signs peculiar to one culture need to be explained properly to members of a different culture. Translators should be careful when transferring signs across cultural boundaries, as the way they translate these signs shapes the conceptual image perceived by TL readers. Any process of transferring signs across cultural boundaries necessitates a fundamental step of accurate identification. A translator of Islamic architecture should be aware of the detailed features of an element, besides having knowledge about the whole construction which it is a part of. Cultural background is also important, since any architectural element gets its identity from the whole system. These signs could not be studied as separate entities isolated from their context. There are some challenges that make translating these terms an arduous task. Many elements of Islamic architecture totally disappeared and the only source to study them is the scarce number of written books about Islamic architecture. This makes the translation process more 3 difficult taking into consideration that no accurate translation could be achieved without understanding what each term exactly signifies. In addition, some terms acquired different meanings through different periods of time, while the field of architecture was thriving in the Islamic community and the architectural designs were developing. Furthermore, any element of architecture usually has two basic aspects: function and form. The form of an architectural element is often adapted to its purpose. Thus, the purpose-function is the important factor which usually determines the design (Grabow, 2015). However, excellence in architecture could produce creativity in the form and make it the focus of interest more than the purpose. This combination in the signified entity may confuse translators while thinking which is more important to be conveyed in the translation process. 1.2 Purpose of the study This study focuses on transferring signs of Islamic architecture into the English linguistic community, and transferring them back from English into the Arabic linguistic community. The researcher attempts to clarify the correct approach of translating cultural signs outside the boundary of their community. This study also aims to explain that this case does not apply when translating signs of Islamic architecture from English into Arabic, since the TL culture is their original culture. The strategies used in the examined texts are assessed to explain which is the most efficient in each case. 4 1.3 Research questions This thesis is expected to answer the following questions: 1. What are the strategies used in transferring signs of Islamic architecture into the western culture? 2. To what extend writers succeeded to help TL readers to perceive an accurate conceptual images about the transferred signs? 3. What are the best strategies that can be followed to produce equivalent terms in the TL that enable TL readers to signify the same element? 4. What are the mistakes translators made in the process of translating signs of Islamic architecture back into the Arabic linguistic community? 1.4 Statement of the problem Transferring signs across boundaries of different cultures is fraught with difficulties. Some signs of Islamic architecture are common between the cultures of both Arabic and English communities. This case only requires a translator to find the established signifier of the intended signified element in each linguistic community. There is no need for explication, since TL readers are familiar with the sign. When a sign of Islamic architecture is foreign for TL readers, translators should apply an appropriate strategy to enable them to perceive an accurate conceptual image of this sign. The collected data shows some problems that occurred in this process. 5 1. Change in signification: Translators use signs form the TL culture as equivalents to some signs of Islamic architecture, while the signified of this supposed cultural equivalent differs from the original element in its design or its function. Therefore, TL readers perceives a different conceptual image of another sign. 2. Confusing signification; TL reader is often not capable of defining the intended sign correctly, since the provided translation is a general description. It does not distinguish between similar signs. In this case, the description lacks the sign‟s value, which is its distinctive feature. 3. Failure of signification: the sign does not function in the TL sphere. The signifier is transferred into the TL using its letters despite the fact that it does not function outside its original semiosphere without explanation. TL readers infer that it represents a foreign sign but they cannot signify any particular element. Other problems occur in translating texts about Islamic architecture from English into Arabic. This process involves transferring signs of Islamic architecture back into their original culture. Many provided translations of these signs show that translators do not realize this fact, or at least they do not choose the appropriate strategy for this case. Examination of the translated texts from English into Arabic presents these problems. 1. Translators transfer signs of Islamic architecture into the Arabic linguistic community using strategies usually applied to transfer foreign 6 signs such as: description, cultural equivalent, and transference. These strategies usually produce Arabic expressions that confuse readers. 2. Many translations show that the signs are not identified accurately by the translator. The relationship between the signifier and the signified is not set correctly because the translator ignores the evolution of the sign in time. The signifier or the signified may change in the language use of the community. This consequently causes a shift in the relationship between the two aspects. Moreover, other signs are not identified properly due to lack of knowledge of the real sign‟s identity. 1.5 Significance of the study This study aims to present the common mistakes detected in translations of Islamic architecture terms. Its significance lies in the fact that Islamic architecture is a rich field of study. More and more research is still being done about Muslims‟ creativity in different historical monuments. This study demonstrates the problems of translating these terms to make specialized researchers able to convey them more accurately into the English linguistic community. Therefore, TL readers will be able to signify the intended element, and perceive its conceptual image accurately. Furthermore, there are many historical sites that still include numerous Islamic buildings. They are being visited by a large number of tourists. This, accordingly, requires multi-language brochures and internet sites where this kind of study is going to be beneficial. It demonstrates the 7 advantages and disadvantages of each strategy. This helps to determine the best translation strategy according to different factors such as: the target reader, the purpose and the required degree of informativity. 1.6 Limitations of the study The prosperity of Islamic architecture brought forth a large number of terms, so that the researcher decided to focus on a small group of terms. Most of these terms are related to religious architecture, since all the described monuments in the studied texts are almost religious constructions. Religious architecture was the center of interest in that period to meet the needs and of the new religion. These terms include the different parts of mosques appeared over the whole Islamic period, in addition to the processes and techniques used in mosque building and decoration. Some of these terms could be also used in residential architecture. Other kinds like military, funerary, and commercial are not included, since they are scarcely mentioned in the examined books. The linguistic origins of the terms used in Islamic architecture are diverse due to the cultural exchange between civilizations which spoke different languages. Some terms are originally Turkish or Persian. Arabs started to use some of these terms as they are. Consequently, the terms have been naturalized and mixed with Arabic terms. Scholars, then, have disagreed upon the origins of some terms whether they are originally Arabic or not. Therefore, this research is not going to look for the linguistic origins of each term. This will actually be a painful attempt with no helpful 8 purposes for this study. If the etymology of words, however, can be of some help in rendering meanings, it is used as an evidence. Another important point that should be mentioned here is that this study will be concerned with only denotative meanings. As Hatim demonstrates (1990: 112) The signifier and the signified work together to give rise to a sign which has a denotative meaning. It becomes a new signifier in search for a connotative meaning. Potentially, the process can be renewed several times, as additional connotative values are acquired. The denotative meaning recalls the architectural entity whose identity should not vary from one reader to another. On the contrary, there are multiple possibilities of the connotative meaning that could be perceived. Anyway, terms of Islamic architecture may acquire connotational meaning in other kinds of texts which discuss Islamic architecture from a philosophical point of view. 1.7 Methodology This research is a descriptive and analytical study. The data is collected from three books about Islamic architecture written in English. These three books are Islamic Art by David Rice, Islam Art and Architecture by Markus Hattstein and Peter Delius, and a Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture by Creswell. The books are investigated to 9 detect how the signs of Islamic architecture are transferred into the English linguistic community. The studied texts are descriptions of Islamic architecture monuments. The elementary step in the analysis process is studying the architectural construction being described from different sources to have a precise background about all the signs it includes. This is crucial to be capable of defining the signified element intended by the provided TL signifier. For this reason, the researcher skipped descriptions of some damaged architectural constructions that have no elements of clear identity, since what is observed is merely ruins. English and Arabic descriptions of the same building are compared to extract the signs used in the TL community as equivalent to the SL signs. A sign of the TL is analyzed to see whether it satisfies the required aspects of the original sign‟s meaning, so that it could be used to signify the same entity. In a sense, the TL signifier should serve to enable a TL reader to recall the correct signified and perceives an accurate conceptual image of this sign. When different equivalents are found for the same sign, they are compared in order to see which one conveys the meaning of the original in the best way. The strategies used by the translators to render the SL terms are also presented. The advantages and disadvantages of each strategy are explained through clarifying the success and failure of provided translations. 12 Noteworthy, texts that discusses one particular sign are not considered part of the sample of this study. This kind of texts allows presenting all the features of a sign extensively. This explanation is certainly sufficient to depict a precise image of the intended sign. Whereas, the subject of this study is examining how terms of Islamic architecture are conveyed in a text about Islamic architecture to enable TL readers to signify the same elements of the SL culture. Therefore, the sample of this study includes short expressions provided as equivalents to the original signs. Two books of the three mentioned above are translated into Arabic. They are Islamic Art by David Rice translated by Fakhri Khalil, and a Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture by Creswell translated by Abdel-hadi Abla. These two translated versions are scrutinized to check how signs of Islamic architecture are transferred back into the Arabic linguistic community. The researcher focuses on the strategies used in translating these signs and the mistakes made in this process. Mistakes related to other aspects such as grammar, and cohesion are not the subject of this study. 11 1.8 Layout of the study The study is divided into four main sections. They are presented in the following order to achieve the aim of this study in a comprehensible sequence. Chapter One is the elementary part of this study. First, the introduction gives the reader a brief background about this topic. Then, it presents the purpose of this research and the addressed questions. It also states the problem that is attempted to be solved. Moreover, it includes the significance of the study, its limitation, and the methodology followed in collecting and analyzing data. Chapter two reviews the previous studies related to this research in its first part. The second part of this chapter introduces the theoretical framework adopted by the researcher to conduct the analysis. Chapter three presents the analysis of the collected data. It demonstrates the different cases of translating signs of Islamic architecture, and the strategies followed in each case. It discusses the problems detected in the provided translations. A suggested translation of each examined term is also provided in a separate section. Chapter four gives a conclusion to this research, while it is actually aimed to be the beginning of serious and extensive research in translation in this field. It summarizes the problems and findings of this study. It also includes some recommendations. 10 Chapter two Literature Review and Theoretical Framework This section is divided into two main parts. The first one presents studies conducted in the field of architecture, especially Islamic architecture, which are related to this study in some respects. The second part demonstrates the theoretical concepts of semiotics applied in analyzing the process of translating terms of Islamic architecture. 2.1 Review of related literature For studying terms of Islamic architecture in the translation field, it is useful initially to give a review of studies about translating terms of architecture from other cultures to see the difficulties translators face and how they worked to overcome these difficulties. Then, some basic knowledge about terms of Islamic architecture is presented. It includes the categories of these terms, their characteristics, and their resources. Moreover, the status of Islamic architecture in Western studies is discussed, in addition to presenting some opinions about Westerner's translations of its terms. 2.1.1 Terms of architecture in translation studies There are few studies conducted on translating terms of architecture, other than the Islamic, which have special cultural specificity, such as: Persian, Greek, Chinese and Spanish. The following studies talk about this issue from different perspectives. They refer to the difficulty of transferring 13 architecture outside its cultural community in the translation process, which usually implies a risk of inaccuracy and losing the cultural value. This part of literature provides significant insights for dealing with terms of Islamic architecture. A study done by Esmaeil Bagheridoust (2017) discusses the difficulty of translating Persian architecture terminology as culture specific items (CSI). The researcher studies two books on Iranian architecture, one is originally written in English and the other is translated from Persian into English, to examine the accuracy of rendering these terms by English writers and translators. He applies Van Doorslaer‟s model which provides 23 possible translation strategies to achieve equivalent TL terms for CSI. Bagheridoust‟s study is descriptive and quantitative, so the researcher aims to present the strategies used most in this field. The researcher finds that four strategies are used in the studied texts. These strategies are: Direct Transfer, Word for Word Translation, Interpretation, and Domestication. He, then, gives explanation of using each of the four strategies. Interpretation, for example, is frequently used to explain the differences between the terms used in the two languages in an attempt to compensate any probable loss. Word-for-word strategy definitely fails to convey the architectural terms properly, but it may work in translating phrases and sentences. The focus in these texts is to convey information which leads writers/translators to reduce the foreignness of these terms for the reader and, accordingly, resort to domestication. This issue poses an important question which is: to what degree is domestication justifiable? This 14 confuses translators, since direct translation is needed when referents are peculiar to the Persian culture. Jean and Amanda Stephenson (2015) talk about the difficulty they face in translating articles about Spanish architecture into English. The basic problem they discuss is whether to domesticate or foreignize the special terms which do not have direct equivalents in the TL. They sometimes resort to transliteration, while at other times they provided explanation. They conclude that a translator should take the reader into account while choosing the strategy. In a sense, foreignization is acceptable when the text is directed to specialists. However, it produces a TT which could be incomprehensible for non-specialist readers. Therefore, inserting Spanish terms in italics should be accompanied by explanation or footnotes to demonstrate the specificity of the element for the reader. Another study is carried out by Glanville Downey on nine Greek architectural terms (1946). Writers resort to descriptions or general terms to convey the meaning of an element. Downey argues that there is no uniformity in using these expressions, since this depends on how the writer perceives an element and his/her mental tendencies. Some writers pay attention to the exact details, while others have a general view. The exact referent sometimes seems vague to the reader because the used expression is not clear-cut. Thus, the used term could have multiple interpretations. Unclear descriptions lead the reader astray, so that he would not be able to 15 infer the exact referent. Therefore, serious research is necessitated from translators/writers in order to convey these terms accurately. Carry Y. Liu in her article “Concepts of architectural space in historical Chinese thought” states that “Understanding any one culture‟s architectural language through the prism of another‟s language presents a serious challenge in translation” (2015: 195). He demonstrates that different communities have different perceptions and concepts about architecture. They may have similar elements, and use the same materials but they fill the space in various ways. He adds that a person has to study both physical and metaphysical aspects and how they interrelate to understand architecture of a community. This is essential to find equivalents for architectural terms in another language, since the physical aspect gives the element its shape and the metaphysical aspect gives its function or usefulness. The metaphysical aspect, in its turn, includes rituals, perceptions, beliefs and symbols. 2.1.2 Terms of Islamic architecture Despite the fact the Arabs studied Islamic architecture in depth; few of them were interested in studying the language used in this field. Some of this small number of scholars worked on providing specialized dictionaries for terms of Islamic architecture. They made a great effort to study the linguistic origin of these terms and their use. The following scholars give information that sets an essential basis for any study about terms of Islamic architecture. 16 Afif Bahnasi (2003) addresses the issue of the emergence of specialized terms for Islamic architecture. He says that these terms were generated by architects in that period as a result of the new techniques created in their works. Bahansi describes these terms as being so direct and clear in the way they express the intended meaning. Furthermore, he discusses the multiplicity of these terms. The diversity of the origins of architects, in addition to the diversity of the dialects in the Arab countries, produced a plethora of terms. This matter, consequently, caused some kind of confusion for researchers later on. Some attempts have been made to make specialized dictionaries as a response to the need of clarifying the use of each term and grouping the multiple terms used to refer to the same element. Mohammad Al-Haddad (2008) lists the requisite sources for an accurate examination of any term of Islamic architecture. Linguistic dictionaries are the first source needed to know the linguistic origin of a term and its different meanings acquired through time. The second source is the available documents, Al-Waqf documents for example, which certainly include terms used in this field. The historical writings are considered the third type useful references, especially the wonderers‟ writings. The last source is the remaining monuments which are important to validate any piece of information. These are the most truthful resources that are preferable to be used for studying terms of Islamic architecture to avoid the mistaken beliefs included in some writings. 17 In another section of the book, Al-Haddad (2008) puts the terms used in dictionaries and all related papers, documents and books in seven categories. The first one includes terms related to city planning. The next four categories cover the various types of architecture, which are: military, funerary, religious, and civil architecture. The last one of these four contains residential and commercial buildings, baths, and public service institutions. The elements utilized in construction, such as: vaults, arches columns and niches, form the sixth category. He puts the seventh category for the materials used building and decoration. This study assists researchers to understand the nature of these terms and their different types. 2.1.3 About Western studies of Islamic architecture Arab specialists in Islamic architecture criticize the incomplete vision of the Western studies, even though they admit the value of their contributions. Some Arab scholars point to a number of negative effects that this view may cause. Concerning the terms, they always show tendency to emphasize the importance of using the original Arabic terms to refer to Islamic elements. They argue that the Foreign translated terms are not adequate to replace the originals. The following studies demonstrate this perspective. Idham Hanash (2013) explores the effect of the orientalist view on the Islamic art terms to differentiate between the foreign and the original. He alerts to the danger of making the Western vocabulary the basis of Arabic scientific research in this field, as it depends on Arabization and the 18 translation of foreign terms. According to Hanash, the core of the problem is the intimate relationship between all kinds of Islamic arts and Arabic language. In other words, Islamic Art has a special identity which can‟t be fully realized through other languages. Thus, it will always be imperfect in the western perception. He also refers to the signification disorder observed in some foreign terms. The signified of these terms is not clear-cut; they are translated in Arabic studies in different ways. In another study, Hanash (2014) explains Ismael Al-Farouqi‟s theory about Islamic art which also calls for studying this art from an Islamic not Western perspective. Despite his acknowledgement of the Western contributions about Islamic art, Al-Farouqi criticizes their approach which is affected by the western standards and, consequently, produced some misconceptions. He states that studying Islamic art from a Western view affected the concepts, approaches and terminologies. Mohammed Othman (2008) says that most of the Western studies talk about Islamic architecture in a descriptive approach. He illustrates that these studies document the Islamic monuments, categorize them into different types, and provide description of their formal features. According to Othman, the descriptive approach is the first step in studying architecture. It should be followed by functional and analytical approaches which study architecture in its context, as they connect the design of any construction with its function and the culture of its era. Othman presents some problems he observed in westerns studies of Islamic architecture, 19 besides limiting their research to designs‟ description. He claims that most of these studies depend on works of famous previous researchers without validating their contribution. This also could be the reason that makes them continue to follow the same descriptive approach. In their descriptions, they attempt to attribute the Islamic designs and elements to Roman, Greek and Byzantine architecture concluding that Muslims did not create anything new in architecture. Thus, they tend to use terms which refer to elements form previous periods as equivalents to terms of Islamic architecture. Abedel-Jabar Naji (2001) praises the European and American studies of the old and new Islamic cities but he also refers to their insufficiency. Moreover, he explains that western scholars have different perspectives in studying the Islamic cities and follow different approaches. These studies include various topics related to different aspects of the city. Concerning architecture, one group adopts „a positive attitude‟, and the other opposed it. The first group recognizes the distinct styles Muslims created, especially in the new cities they established after the advent of the Islamic rule. The opposite view eliminates the originality and uniqueness of Islamic architecture. This group claims that the architectural elements of the Islamic cities, though created by Muslims, are merely imitation of previous Roman and Greek cities. Mohammad Al-Haddad (2008) argues that the overlap between the original Arabic terms and the imported terms from other languages, in addition to the variety of expressions used in the Arab world, consequently 02 caused difficulty to recognize the intended meaning of each term. He, further, observes that terms of Islamic architecture are occasionally used by western writers without understanding them accurately. Some foreign terms, which are originally translated from Arabic, are not adequate equivalents to the original terms. They usually refer to one of the different aspects of the term. They are even sometimes irrelevant. This problem is exacerbated when these terms are translated back or transliterated in Arabic writings. Therefore, he concludes that the substitution of foreign terms for original Arabic terms is necessary to limit the confusing variety. The introduced studies show that there is no analytical examination of foreign terms of Islamic architecture. Arabic studies are limited to emphasizing the problem of using foreign terms instead of originals because they are not equivalents. They constantly indicate the inadequacy of these terms, yet there is no study that managed to provide enough explication. English studies of other types of architecture do not also set a thorough framework that could be applicable to studying terms of Islamic architecture. They deal with some significant aspects in translating architecture. However, they don't provide a strategy to solve the encountered problems in the translation process. This study lays out a comprehensive theoretical framework based on semiotics for translating not only terms of Islamic architecture but all types of architecture. 01 2.2 Theoretical framework In this section, all the concepts needed to conduct this study in the framework of semiotics are demonstrated. It begins with defining a sign according to the theories applied in this study. It also discusses the inconstant nature of signs and its impact on the translation process. Further, it clarifies how a sign functions in a semiotic system in relation to other signs. Finally, some scholars‟ contributions about translation in a semiotic system are provided to conceptualize the process of translating a sign. Hatim‟s model of semiotic translation is heavily needed in this study in order to establish an effective strategy for translating terms of Islamic architecture. 2.2.1 Signs and signification Ferdinand de Saussure (1959) defines a sign as a „psychological entity‟ that has two sides: a signifier and a signified. The signifier refers to the „sound- image‟ and the signified is the concept which is united with it. Defining the sign as a psychological entity means that these two aspects are psychic images and associated together in the mind of a language user who constructs the relationship between them meaningfully. Saussure states that this association is totally arbitrary, since there is no natural connection between a sequence of sounds and a particular object. They are joined together conventionally by the collective behavior of a community. The conventional rules define the meaning of a linguistic sign and its context. 00 This relationship becomes like a heritage to the linguistic community that employs it. The researcher prefers to apply the binary relation of Saussure‟s sign instead of the triadic relation of Peirce‟s sign. The main contribution of Peirce‟s theory is explaining the inferential nature of the sign which is not the subject of this study, as explained in the section of the limitations. Terms of Islamic architecture signify conceptual images about physical entities. What is probable to be inferred from these terms by the language user is not important in the studied text. Paul Thibault (1997) discusses Saussure's theory of the linguistic sign. He emphasizes that the relationship between a signifier and a signified is not causal, in the sense that one emerges as a result of the other, because the two aspects of the sign recall each other simultaneously. One may look for the concept signified by a particular word, or the word used for a particular concept. They are intimate partners; knowing one immediately evokes the other. That's why Saussure rejects considering language as a process of naming things, in which a signifier is used to name an already defined, clear object or concept. Recognizing a notion or an object could not be independent from using language, since the association between a signifier and a signified is actually construal. Thibault describes this relation precisely by saying that 'it construes order, pattern and meaning in the flux of perceptual phenomenon (1997: 214)'. 03 Thibault (1997) also demonstrates what signification means in Saussure's semiotic theory. He explains that signification occurs when a language user interprets a particular sign. In other words, it is the process whereby a sequence of sounds is perceived to have a specific meaning. Furthermore, a sequence of sounds is only delimited from the whole system only through a signifying act, i.e. when interpreted. One may think that the signification process deals with signs individually. It is important to indicate that a process of signification depends on the concept of value which concerns the sign in its system. This relation is discussed further in section (2.2.2). The fact that the relation between a signifier and a signified is firmly established by convention does not mean that it is unchangeable at all. Ferdinand de Saussure describes the process of calling things by definite names as forming a contract between concepts and sound images. However, he accepts the possibility of changing the meaning attached to a word in time due to the effect of social forces, which he does not explain clearly. Saussure states that „regardless of what the forces of change are, whether in isolation or combination, they always result in a shift between the signified and the signifier‟ (1959: 75). These forces may affect the two components of the sign. The sound (signifier) may undergo some phonetic modification, and the meaning (the signified) may also be altered. This consequently causes a shift in the relationship. 04 The unstable relation between the signified and the signifier must be taken into consideration in the process of identifying a sign in its culture. This requires investigating the meaning evolution of a sign in time, which is one aspect of diachronic studies. Diachronic studies explore the changes occurred on the semantic meaning, sound system, and grammatical structure (Saussure, 1959). Semantic diachronic studies help to detect a fixed relationship between a signifier and its intended signified in a particular period of time. 2.2.2 Saussure’s concept of the sign’s value Translators usually depend on descriptive strategies in conveying cultural elements into a TL to clarify them for readers from another culture. Elements of Islamic architecture have many different details in their designs beside the function. This may confuse translators which to include in their descriptions. If the provided expression lacks the significant characteristics of the intended element, the signification process does not work properly. Thus, the needed details are those which distinguish a particular element from other similar elements. This is what the „value‟ concept, discussed by Saussure (1959), exactly explains. Saussure‟s concept of value basically emanates from studying a sign in accordance with other signs. Any element acquires its value by being a part of a system. Its relation with other elements in the system is what gives it a value. It is a mistaken belief that isolated signs combine together to constitute a system. Yet, we can say that the actual existence of a sign is 05 derived from the whole system which is constituted of interdependent items. Signs define each other through their differences, as Saussure says „whatever distinguishes one sign from the others constitutes it‟ (1959: 121). He demonstrates the dependence of the sign‟s value on differences through contemplating the signifier and the signified separately. The „value‟ of a concept is determined by its difference from other concepts in the system. Saussure states describing the conceptual value: „the most precise characteristic is in being what the others are not (1959: 117)‟. The same principle is applied to the signifier. It forms a series of phonetic sounds distinct from those of other words in the linguistic system. Paul Cobley (2001) reveals that value is sometimes defined as the meaning of the sign, while Saussure himself invalidates this equation. He adds that value is a basic constituent especially of a linguistic sign. He further explains that this value is obtained in the linguistic system by the contrasting relations between various signs. The concept of value may be also confused with signification. Saussure (1959) emphasizes that these are two different concepts, and value is part of the process of signification. It does not work properly without taking the value into consideration. Signification is the link that connects a signifier with its correct signified. In light of the above discussion about the value, we can realize that signification relies on value. In a sense, signification connects two aspects specified through difference 06 relations which in turn, as it became clear, create the value of each one of these aspects. 2.2.3 Lotman’s concept of semiosphere A concept introduced by Yuri M. Lotman (1990) „semiosphere‟ discusses the boundaries of a space where a sign functions. The communication between an addresser and addressee does not work if they are not engrossed in the same semiosphere. Lotman presents this joint space between two persons as a mutual experience they both should have to be participants in a semiotic process. Any language does not function except when interacted with its semiotic space. This space is created by a particular culture with all its changes and developments. History also influences the semiosphere, as long as it is part of the memory. It influences the present vision of that culture about the world, as an ancient literary work affects a particular culture. Lotman states that “works which come down to us from remote cultural periods continue to playing a part in cultural developments as living factors” (1990: 127). Islamic architecture still constitutes a part of the semiosphere of the Arabic culture, as long as its production exists. Each culture has it internal space. Everything outside this space is external to this culture. According to Lotman, members of a particular community view that no structure controls the space beyond the boundaries of their semiosphere; it looks unorganized for them (Andrews, 2003). When a text, or a conceptual thought, from a particular culture enters a 07 semiosphere other than its original, it may affect how the world is conceptualized within the new space. An external sign should be transferred across the boundaries of a semioshere to become internal to the new space while keeping its characteristics without being changed. However, the transferred text/ concept should have potentiality to be understood in the space of the new culture; it must be provided with the codes which allow speakers of a different language to decipher it (Lotman, 1990). This is essential to make this space structured and accessible to the TL readers. The greater the difference between the two cultures is, the more difficult communication becomes. In other words, more explanation is needed in this case. Lotman (1990) indicates that no complete semantic transfer can be achieved in translating a sign from another semiosphere. We make a kind of correspondence, when the difference allows a degree of translatability. Nevertheless, some concepts are prevalent in all cultures. They are characterized by universality, so they are exchanged easily. 2.3.4 Hatim’s model of semiotic translation Basil Hatim suggested a model for semiotic translation to deal with translating signs between two different cultures, which basically belong to separate semiospheres. He believes that „translating can now be envisaged as the process which transforms one semiotic entity into another, under certain equivalence conditions‟ (1990:105). According to Hatim, a translator goes through 4 stages. The first stage is called „identification‟. In this stage, the semiotic entity is identified in the SL culture. Then, 08 translators come to the second stage in which they establish an equivalent for the „denotational meaning‟ of the identified sign. The equivalent includes, as Hatim calls it, the „informational core‟ of this entity. When the used equivalent is not enough and misses some important features that should be mentioned, other strategies could be used to add more information such as synonymy, expansion, and paraphrase. What the translator does in this stage is giving „explication‟. The last stage in semiotic translation is „transformation‟ in which the final equivalence is produced in the TL (1990:105-106). In translating terms of Islamic architecture, a translator has primarily to identify the signs in the Arabic culture. In a sense, a translator must recognize the linguistic word and the architectural entity which is attached to it. S/he must have background knowledge about these signs, besides their function in the SL culture. Inaccurate perception of the element‟s identity definitely produces incorrect translation. When the translator passes the first stage successfully, s/he can easily assign the element‟s informational core which conveys its basic meaning. This basic constituent is often not sufficient to enable a TL reader to signify the same entity of the SL culture. Therefore, the translator should clarify the meaning by adding more descriptive details of the signified element. As discussed above, the important details are those which constitute its value. When the translator manages to convey the significant value of the intended element, the transformation process is done effectively. 09 In this section, the theoretical concepts and approaches needed to analyze the collected data are clarified. Dealing with terms of Islamic architecture as signs consisting of a word and a concept is more comprehensible with an accurate explanation of Saussure‟s definition of the sign. The concept of semiosphere helps to demonstrate the cultural boundary of these signs. Thus, it highlights the difficulty of transferring them into another semiosphere where they do not function. Hatim‟s model of semiotic translation and Saussure‟s concept of the value are presented as a solution in this problematic translation process. 32 Chapter Three Data Analysis There are three cases of translating signs of Islamic architecture discussed in this study. The sign could be part of both English and Arabic linguistic communities. Some signs which belong to this category are universal. Others occupy places in the intersecting sphere of the two cultures due to different factors illustrated in the first section. The second category includes signs peculiar to the system of Islamic architecture. Translating these signs into English involves transferring them outside their semiosphere into the western cultural sphere. In this case, particular strategies are adopted in the translation process in order to help members of the TL community to perceive an approximate image, i.e. signified, of each sign. In the third case, these signs are transferred back into their original culture. This procedure involves translating the English translated terms (SL terms in this case) into Arabic. The translated signs could be also from the first group. In a sense, they could be common signs between the two systems or peculiar to the system of Islamic architecture. 3.1 Signs in the intersecting sphere of Arabic and English cultural systems The members of both communities may have intersecting spaces due to similarities of codes and memories (Andrews, 2003). Signs which are part of this space are identified almost the same by members of these 31 communities. An equivalent translation could be established, as the signifiers of the two languages recall the same signified. There are some elements that have been created before the Islamic period, yet still considered substantial elements of Islamic architecture. These elements are basic constituents that Muslims utilized to generate their own designs, such as: vaults (aqd\ عمذ), arches (qaws\ لوط), domes (quba\ لجخ), and niches (henyeah\ حٍُخ). They were employed in ancient civilizations, especially by Romans who depended on bent ceilings rather than straight construction in architecture. These basic elements exist in the semiosphere of both western and Arabic Islamic cultures. These elements are constituted of parts that could not be easily acknowledged by an unspecialized translator. They should be carefully studied in translating texts of architecture from one language into another, since a translator must convey a term by its established equivalent to not confuse readers when using other terms in translation. For example, the pieces used to construct an arch are called in English voussoirs, and „labinat/نجُبد‟ or „sinjat/ صُجبد‟ in Arabic ( 61: 1999، وصٌشي ). The term „spandrel‟ is used to indicate the space between the arch and its framework, while its counterpart is „koshat alaqd/ كوشخ انعمذ‟ in Arabic ( : 0222، سصق 061). Some signs are identified to be a part of Islamic architecture, even though their signifieds resemble other elements previously existed. Certainly, the architectural production of each culture is affected by works 30 of previous civilizations. Some elements are employed as they are like those discussed above, while others are developed to acquire a different function or a special status due to their existence in a different culture. Mi'thana/ يئزَخ, for example, has the design of a minaret, or a tower in some cases, but with a different function. However, the term minaret is used as an equivalent for the similar Islamic element Mi'thana. Rarely, the term is attached with an explanation of its Islamic function to represent its cultural identity. Only two cases are detected in the studied texts. The first one is presented by Creswell „midana, derived from adan, the call to prayer, and simply means the place where the call to prayer is pronounced‟ (1989 :16). The other example, by Hattstien and Delius, is brief: „minarets for the use in the call to prayer‟ (2004: 69). The prevalent use of minaret as an equivalent to mi’thana without indicating its function could be explained by the fact that the western community became familiar with the minaret of the mosque. This familiarity took place in the west due to the presence of mosques with minarets there. Westerners are able to recall its function easily, once they come across the term minaret in a context of describing a mosque. Minbar is also an element which is used before the Islamic period. A pulpit is known to signify an entity that someone stands on before a crowd to deliver a speech. It acquired a different status in the Islamic culture, since it is used especially for Friday speeches 'Khutba'. Moreover, it must be placed in a definite space in a mosque beside the mihrab. As in the case of the term minaret, the pulpit is occasionally attached to the transliterated 33 term minbar in the studied texts in order to indicate its Islamic specificity. However, the term „pulpit‟ conveys an image that is enough to signify this Islamic element as it implies its basic structure and function. Islamic architecture is distinguished with some techniques in construction and decoration that were originated during that period. Westerners started to apply some of these techniques later. Through practice they became acknowledged in this community. This, consequently, produced established TL equivalents to the Arabic terms. Arabesque is considered nowadays as a well-known artistic style which employs intricate interaction of geometric and floral designs (Sandler, 1976). This artistic style is practiced widely in the west and studied as a separate kind of art with its special instruction and rules. Thus, it is natural currently to occupy a place in the western semiosphere, and so has an established term. Western researchers in the field of Islamic architecture provided descriptions for some elements that have been adopted then to be standard translations. They are actually literal translations, since the same descriptive strategy generated the original Arabic terms. In this case, the signifiers of both the SL and the TL definitely signify the same element. Alqaws Almodabbab\ انموط انًذثت, for example, is described in English „the pointed arch‟. Most shapes of arches have equivalents in the same way. They will be presented in the table below. 34 It is worth mentioning that these equivalent translations of the following signs are used by the writers of the studied English texts. No other translation for any sign is detected. Arabic term English equivalent term Vault عمذ Arch (used also as equivalent to aqd) لوط Dome لجخ Niche حٍُخ Voussoirs نجُبد انعمذ Spandrel كوشخ انعمذ Springer /offset اَجثبق انعمذ Capital ربج انعًود Pointed arch لوط يذثت Horseshoe arch لوط حذوي Semicircular arch لوط دائشي لوط انزخفٍف \لوط عبرك Relieving arch Minaret يئزَخ Pulpit يُجش Faience tiles انمٍشبًَ Arabesque انشلش Figure (1): signs of established translations. 35 3.2 Transferring signs of Islamic architecture outside its semiosphere Lotman emphasizes that the process of transferring information between two communities outside the intersecting space is more beneficial, since it presents something new to a particular community and build relationships between the source and the target cultures. He states that “the more difficult the translation of non-intersection space into another language, the more valued the fact of this paradoxical interaction becomes in terms of informativeness and social relationships” (Andrews, 2003: 49). Signs of Islamic architecture which are not part of the intersecting space between both communities don't have equivalents in English. They signify elements peculiar to Islamic architecture, so that translators resort to illustrative strategies in order to convey them into the new space. They attempt to help the reader perceive the concept or get a mental image about the intended element. By this way, the strange, anonymous signs turn to be comprehensible. Some strategies succeed to transfer the sign of the SL system into the TL culture, while others do not. The studied texts show that translators tend to provide descriptions attempting to approximate the intended meaning. They also use other signs with a similar image from the TL culture. These strategies may produce translations that are either insufficient or recall a different sign. Undoubtedly, it is not expected that the provided translation must be fully adequate to represent an identical image of the original sign. All the probable translations are merely approximations. However, the translated 36 term should be accurate as much as possible. The provided translation must not, at least, signify an entity with a different function or design or miss the distinctive feature of this entity. Some translations present the intended element incorrectly by including features that don't exist in the original element. These problems will be discussed extensively according to the collected data in the following sections. Noteworthy, each provided translation is repeated many times, since most of the Islamic historical sites include the same elements. However, only one is documented to authenticate that it is detected from these texts not fabricated by the researcher. 3.2.1 Presenting a western sign as an equivalent Cultural equivalent is a strategy used in translating cultural terms which allows a translator to convey the meaning of a SL term using another one from the TL culture. From a semiotic point of view, a sign which is part of the SL system is substituted by a different sign from another semiotic system, which in its turn is supposed to resemble the original to a certain extent. Indeed, this strategy eliminates the presence of the SL sign. It presents to the readers another sign they are familiar with instead of the foreign sign to occupy its position. This strategy does not work effectively in some cases. Its proper use is even very limited. This issue is discussed by Peter Newmark (1988) as he illustrates the disadvantage of the cultural equivalent strategy in translation. He states that translations produced by this strategy are often 37 inaccurate. It could be acceptable when the term does not contribute much to the text. If the term is of little importance, there will be no harm in substituting it with another one more comprehensible for the reader. Newmark adds that ' they can be used in general texts, publicity and propaganda, as well as for brief explanation to readers who are ignorant of the relevant SL culture' (1988: 83). What can be concluded is that a cultural equivalent could be used for advertising objectives which require producing cultural effects. This strategy is applicable in other kinds of texts such as drama, proverbs, and jokes where the focus is also on the produced effect (Vieira, 2000). Considering the above discussion, this strategy should not be used in texts about Islamic architecture or any other type of architecture. These texts are specialized to present architectural production of a specific culture for a reader from a different culture, so they are supposed to highlight its characteristics and achievements instead of hiding them by a cover of another culture. In the texts examined for this study, any term used to signify an element of Islamic architecture is of great importance in the text. Thereby, it is unreasonable to provide a term that signifies another element from the TL culture as an equivalent to the original. Applying cultural equivalent strategy in transferring signs of Islamic architecture to the western community entails three problems. First, the TL term signifies an entity in the semiotic system of the TL. Accordingly, it directs the reader to a different sign other than the intended one. The TL 38 term recalls a definite signified in the mind of the TL users, since they already have an established relationship between this signifier and its perceived signified. There could be a little difference between the SL entity and the used equivalent. However, creativity in architecture lies in these little details. The architectural production of all civilizations was generated through making improvements on previous elements taken from other civilizations. Moreover, this strategy reduces the value of the Islamic creativity in architecture or even dismisses it. It indicates that there is nothing in the sign that is worth recognizing as a distinctive production of the Islamic community. It is merely perceived as a copy of an element produced previously by another culture. Thus, the TL element is considered to be sufficient. The alternative element may also lead the reader to get a mistaken, or incomplete perception about the real nature of the Islamic element. The substitutional TL element could have a different function than the original. The function of an architectural element is conceived in relation to the culture of the community where it is generated. The design of that alternative element could also be different. It presents for the reader an image of an entity with formal features the original element does not have, which also may rule out other important features. The following examples explain how the difference makes an equivalence relation between a SL and TL elements fails. 39 3.2.1.1 Signs of different designs Example 1: (Creswell, 1989: 293) portico as an equivalent to riwaq Let us first define what riwaq exactly means. The meaning (signified) of the term riwaq has changed during time. This term was used by the community to signify a covered passage. Concerning religious architecture, the element was used in the design of the prophet mosque at Al Madina. At that time, architecture was not a subject of interest. Its design was very primitive without any decorative element. The riwaq of this mosque was, as Creswell describes it, 'a portico on the north side made of palm-trunks used as columns to support a roof of palm leaves and mud' (1958:4). After the development of religious architecture, Muslims started to construct distinctive designs of religious buildings. Mosques, in this period, are no longer a place constructed only to perform prayers and deliver religious speeches. They became spots to show Muslims creativity in architecture. As a result, they started to be identified with specific features and exquisite elements. Consequently, the term riwaq acquired a more specific meaning. It, therefore, signifies in the system of Islamic architecture the vaulted passageway which is constructed around a courtyard with a façade of arcades ( 0222انحذاد، ). The term „riwaq/ سواق‟ is enough to evoke this whole image with its different parts, since these parts must be connected together to form what is called riwaq. There is almost no riwaq without a façade of arcades and a vaulted roof. 42 The portico, on the other hand, is a design created by ancient Greece and Romans. Later, it is used widely in the western culture. It is like a projection in front of the house leading to its entrance. The portico may have columns to support its flat roof, or it could be enclosed by walls (Harris, 2006). It is also defined by Visser as “a type of porch supported by classical columns rather than by pillars or arches” (2012: 105). Therefore, not having arches and the flat roof are considered characteristics of porticoes, as figure (2) shows. Comparing the image of the portico with that of the riwaq, the difference would be clear. The term portico could be used to draw an analogy with the primitive design used in the Prophet Mosque. Otherwise, it is not equivalent to substitute the riwaq. It can be noticed from figure (3) that what distinguishes the Islamic element is its façade which is composed of baika or arcades, besides a roof of successive vaults. The façade is a distinct element by itself and a basic part to compose the whole design of a courtyard surrounded by riwaqs. These features are absent in the image of a portico. Therefore, the term portico should not be used as equivalent to riwaq. It presents an element with a different form that lacks the unique characteristics of the Islamic design. 41 Figure (2): the portico of St. Michael‟s church which represents the common design of porticoes (Visser, 2012: 114). Figure (3): Riwaq of the great mosque of Damascus with its arcaded facade (Creswell, 1989: 53) Example 2: (Rice, 1965: 78) hexafoil arch as an equivalent to mofasas arch\ انعمذ انًفصص Gothic architecture is characterized by applying foliage designs. Hexafoil is one of its most common geometric designs. This design is basically produced through drawing a number of overlapped circles organized based on accurate mathematical calculations. Anyway, the final figure appears as 40 a flower with a definite number of plates resulted from the overlapped circles. This design is utilized in different styles of decoration: drawings, glass, and ornament sculpture. It is a symbol in Gothic architecture which carries specific connotations depending on the number of plates (Collino, 1858). Hexafoil design is implemented in windows and arches of Gothic architecture. Figure (4) shows examples of using multi-foil arches in Salisbury Cathedral. A hexafoil arch can be noticed on the left. Figure (5) also shows exterior hexafoil arches. Other examples can be viewed in well- known buildings such as: Notre-Dame and Regensburg Cathedral. Figure (4): a hexafoil arch appears on the left Figure (5): exterior hexafoil arches (Hayward, 2003: 233) (Hayward, 2003: 233) Figure (6) shows that the mofassas arch, similarly, consists of semicircular lobes. However, the arches design is different from the previously discussed hexafoil arch. The lobes are not connected to form a hexafoil figure. This design is created by Muslims, and appeared for the first time in the mosque of Cordova. Describing this design with a Gothic element dispossesses its significance. The fact that the term 'hexafoil' 43 signifies a definite element in the TL culture leads TL users to recall the image of this element. Therefore, the function of the signifier is not carried out properly. It directs the reader to another entity instead of understanding the new presented element of the SL culture. Figure (6): mofassas arches (Rice, 1965: 79) Example 3: (Hattstein, 2007: 175) colonnades as an equivalent to ba’ika\ ثبئكخ The sign bai’ka signifies a line of connected arcades of equal size. This element is used in Islamic architecture for decoration surrounding an open space, and for functional purposes such as supporting a ceiling or a second story (2002 ، َواس ). Colonnades were used from ancient times. A colonnade is an arrangement of a number of columns in a line at equal distances. The sign colonnade recalls a conceptual image similar to that of ba’ika but it lacks a fundamental part which is the arches above these columns. There is a significant difference between the two signs. It is worth mentioning that 44 „arcades‟ is an acceptable equivalent, since it was employed before Islamic architecture in an almost similar manner. 3.2.1.2 Signs of different functions Example 4: (Hattstein, 2007: 183) ambulatory as an equivalent to the riwaq around the rock The interior design of the Dome of the Rock consists of two riwaqs. One occurs between the external octagon of the building and another octagonal arcade inside. Another arcade was constructed around the rock which forms the second riwaq with the previous octagonal arcade. When writers translate the sign „riwaq‟ of this structure, they identify it with another sign from the western culture which is „ambulatory‟. The signified entity of these two signs have almost similar designs. However, each one is attached with a different function. The ambulatory is „a passage way round the apse of a church or for circumambulating a shrine‟ (Harris, 2006 :31). This definition shows that this term usually recalls a sign with a different function, as it is specialized for rituals involve walking as circumambulating. All Prayer halls of mosques are formed by a number of riwaqs resulted from rows of arcades (ba’ika). What is different in this mosque is its octagonal plan to surround the sacred rock. However, its riwaqs are still a place for praying as any other mosque. They are not established in this design for circumambulating 45 around the rock. Muslims venerate the rock but they do not practice such ritual in this place. 3.2.1.3 Signs of different designs and functions Example 5: (Rice, 1965: 50) porch as an equivalent of iwan While explaining the design of mosques which includes iwans, Rice describes the iwan as a great porch. The iwan signifies an element originated by Seljuks. This element is primarily a vaulted room with three sides, as it is open to the courtyard ( 0220َواس، ), see figure (8). It is aimed to be a meeting place where a group of followers of a particular Madhab gather to learn teachings of their Madhab. The mosque could have one to four iwans. In mosques which include more than one, each iwan is assigned to followers of a specific Madhab ( 0217حواط، ). The porch signifies “An exterior structure that shelters a building entrance” (Harris, 2006). The common design of the porch is presented in figure (7). This signified element differs from the Islamic element iwan in its function and form. First of all, the term 'porch' denotes a projection in front of a building, while iwan is constructed on the same level of the arcades line. It appears as a great recess in the façade not a projection. Moreover, the iwan has a vaulted roof and it appears as a large arch in the middle of a line of smaller arches. On the other hand, the porch is constructed in various designs and the vaulted is very rare. One arcaded porch in is described by the writer as a distinctive design. As for the 46 function, it signifies an element planned to be an entrance before the main door. Whereas, iwans are basically halls to gather groups of people to deliver religious speeches. Figure (7): A porch projecting over the entrance of a house (Visser, 2012: 109) Figure (8): A recess of an iwan which show Its vaulted roof, open facade, and its entrance which functions as a hall ( 129: 0217حواط، ). Example 6: (Hattstein, 2007: 136) „battlement‟ as an equivalent to ‟alsharafat \انشَشفبد„ This sign is one of the least described in the English texts. It is ignored in most descriptions of the Islamic buildings that show examples of its use. 47 However, it is one of the important elements that were developed in the Islamic period to acquire distinctive features. Battlements were known to exist in castles and fortresses, as it had a defensive function. Battlements are „A fortified parapet with alternate solid parts and openings‟ (Harris, 2006: 95). This parapet enabled soldiers to hide behind it during a battle. Figure (9) presents the semi-cube design employed in that period. This element was employed by Muslims to decorate the edges of mosques, in addition to other religious and secular buildings. In this Islamic period, its function turned to be almost merely decorative ( 0222سصق، ). It also employed in decorating some elements like minbars ( 1999وصٌشي، ). Moreover, two basic designs of this element were created; serrated and foliated. Whereas, the design used before is only semi-cube form. Figure (10) demonstrates the difference of design between the two elements, as it displays two examples of the Islamic battlement. Figure (9): semi-cube battlements known before Islamic architecture (Rickman, 1848: 222). 48 Figure (10): two forms of battlements of Islamic architecture. The first is the foliated battlements of Bolaq‟s mosque. The second is the serrated battlements of Al-Shaf‟i‟s mausoleum ( 132: 1999وصٌشي، ). The signified of this sign for the English linguistic community is mostly that parapet which consists of cubes intended for defense (Rickman, 1848). Despite being applied for decorative aims in some modern chapels, battlement signifier is more likely to recall an entity of a defensive function in the context of describing a historical building like these texts, since it is not expected to be used for decorations in historical periods. When compared to its use in other previous civilizations like the byzantine, the same defensive function will be recalled with its basic cubic design. Therefore, the sign „battlement‟ has a different signified than that which characterized Islamic architecture. Example 7: Considering the interior designs of churches and mosques identical The interior design of the mosque is, sometimes, represented as being identical to the design of some churches. In a sense, the interior divisions of the mosque are recalled using signs of the Christian architecture. The central aisle of the mosque is described as a „nave‟ (Hattstein, 2007: 175), 49 and the transverse aisle in front of the mihrab as a „transept‟ (Hattstein, 2007: 71). Ahmad Fekri (2009) criticizes some scholars who identify the Islamic mosque design with the plan of some churches. He argues that the mosque architecture must not be isolated from its cultural context, since its construction is designed according to religious practices and beliefs. When a translator considers a sign which signifies a part of a mosque as equivalent to another similar one of a church, s\he isolates these signs from their systems. Whereas, any sign acquires its meaning as being part of a system. The signification process of signs thought to be similar, definitely, changes in different systems. Therefore, a nave and a transept signify different conceptual images than a central and a transverse aisle in a mosque. In his study of the mosque of Qairawan, Fekri illustrates the differences between the designs of the nave and the central aisle from one hand, and between the transept and the transverse aisle from another. A church usually includes three longitudinal aisles: two side aisles, which also could be divided into a number of aisles, and the nave in the middle. The width of the nave almost equals the width of the right and left sides. Taking into consideration that some churches include two or three lateral aisles on each side, the nave‟s width amounts two or three times of one lateral aisle. Whereas, the width of the central aisle in a mosque slightly exceeds the width of any aisle on the sides. As for the transept, its length 52 hardly amounts half of the nave in any church. The transverse aisle in a mosque is often more than double of the central aisle length. The ground of these differences is the longitudinal design of the church which contradicts the religious purpose of the mosque, since the mosque depends on width enlargement to allow more prayers stand in the same line as many as possible. This represents one of the Islamic principles to reduce classes in the community. It also emanates from the prophet‟s sayings which urge Muslims to pray in the first lines to be closer to the imam (2009 ,أحًذ). This is just a brief background about the relation of design to religious beliefs, which emphasizes the importance of studying a sign of architecture within its own system. There is no need for an extensive explanation, since the connotational meaning of signs is not the focus of this study. These signs also differ in their functions. The nave is the space where lay people perform their religious rituals in the church to separate them from the clergy (Hourihane, 2012). In comparison, the central aisle is not specialized for a particular group, since there is no such distinction in the mosque. It is only intended to indicate the place of the mihrab. The transept „formed a separate architectural unit… providing appropriate space for liturgy and pilgrims‟ (Finney, 2017: 168). The altar is placed in the crossing space, where the nave and the transept meet. Thus, the transept is specialized for some liturgical practices, while the transverse aisle in the 51 mosque has no special function. It is formed by a transverse arcade which is supposedly intended to support the roof. In conclusion, using a sign from the TL culture definitely involves changes in the signification process. Its signified may vary in its form or function or even both of them. This strategy could be used to explicate the difference not to cover it. The element taken from the TL culture must not be presented to the reader as an adequate equivalent. Using Expressions of similes helps to avoid this mistake. In this way, the TL element is introduced as a similar entity in some respects, and different in others. 3.2.2 Descriptions lack the sign's value Translators usually resort to descriptions in order to convey a SL sign into another culture. Neutral terms are used to explicate its meaning in a way comprehensible for the TL reader. In this strategy, there is a pitfall of choosing the insubstantial, or less substantial, features of an element. The translator should be aware to highlight the most valuable aspect of a sign, which is by default the most important to be conveyed. As illustrated previously, Saussure's concept of the sign's value resolves this problem. The value of a sign is identified in relation with other signs in the system, since it is the feature which distinguishes it from other similar signs. The provided description must have an equivalent relation with the SL sign. This does not mean that all the details should be included in order to produce an equivalent description. The function of a term (signifier) is to 50 signify a particular element in the system. Therefore, an equivalent relation between the SL and TL signs could be established when the TL description directs the reader to the same signified entity. Other details could be given as illustration. This is determined according to other factors such as: the expected level of the reader's knowledge, and the degree of the sign's importance concerning the topic being discussed. Example 8: describing Mihrab as 'a prayer niche' (Creswell, 1989: 18) or with its position 'at the center of one wall' (Rice, 1965: 186). The niche design is „a recess in a wall; often semicircular in plan, surmounted by a half dome‟ (Harris, 2006: 662). It is used by other civilizations before the Islamic culture, so it is a part of the western semiosphere. It exists in religious and civil western architecture. Muslims employed this design to constitute a mihrab in their mosques. The niche design is also used in Islamic architecture for decorative styles, so it can be found in other positions rather than the mihrab. Mihrab has a special sacred function. It primarily indicates the direction of Qibla in a mosque. It‟s constructed also to save the imam a space in front of lines of prayers without occupying a whole line in the mosque. Irrespective of this function, indication of Qibla is the main function which distinguishes a mihrab from any other niche. 53 The first translation shows an attempt to describe the mihrab‟s function. Nevertheless, it does not set the mihrab apart from other similar niches, since any niche in the mosque or outside it could be a place for praying. The second translation describes the mihrab by its position in the mosque. This point would be helpful to attain the sign‟s value, only if the writer specified which wall in the mosque the mihrab takes place in. It is a mistake to let the description of the mihrab position confusing this way without specifying the side, since the mihrab must be only in the Qibla wall. As a result, both descriptive translations fail to convey the value of this sign. Example 9: Describing Ablaq technique as „the use of stones of two colors‟ (Rice, 1965: 166) Ablaq is a technique applied in various buildings of Islamic architecture. This term is used to signify an animal with two contrasting colors, i.e. dark and light, usually black and white. The same idea is followed in architecture by building courses of stones using two contrasting colors. The colored stone-courses are constructed alternatively; a dark course followed by a light one ( 0222سصق، ). Describing ablaq facade of a building as having two colors, as in this example, is certainly not sufficient. Colored stones are utilized in modern western architecture. It could be also found in ancient architecture. Therefore, a description of this technique used in Islamic buildings must include the differentiating characteristics in order to help the reader to 54 perceive this element as distinctive. The first substantial characteristic is using two contrasting colors, since gradient colors, for example, do not represent a facade constructed by this technique. The second one is that these two contrasting colors are applied following one another Another similar provided is „alternating courses of colored stones‟ (Hattstein, 2007: 190). This description is, definitely more accurate. It includes an additional feature extra to the first translation which is describing the courses of stones as alternating. However, it still lacks the essential value. As discussed in the previous paragraph, the used colors should be contrasting. Example 10: Describing Maqsura as ruler's precinct (Hattstein, 2007: 71). Maqsura signifies a space enclosed by a boundary of any kind. In Islamic architecture, this enclosed space was specialized for the ruler to protect him from an attempt of attack. The siege was made, for the first time by Uthman ibn Affan, of mud brick including some openings. Then, it started to be made of decorated stone and wood. The most common type of borders was screens of wooden lattices ( 0222سصق، ). As for the provided description, it includes an important part of this element which is its function. It entails that it is a place assigned for a ruler. However, the term 'precinct' does not mention anything about its architectural construction, since it does not signify that this space is 55 surrounded by a kind of material border. Precinct is defined in the dictionary as “the area near or round a building” (Oxford, 2010). It also signifies the grounds immediately surrounding a cathedral in western architecture (Harris, 2006). Virtually, precinct signifies a space which is recognized as being specified for a particular thing. The border could be imaginary, so the place is collectively perceived to be isolated. This means that this term may lead the reader to recall a concept of a space which is agreed to be assigned for the ruler, while the boundary is the basic entity which constructed this element and gave it prominence in the history of Islamic architecture. The material boundary indicates the actual function of maqsura which is enabling the ruler to perform his prays with the other prayers and save him from attacks at the same time. Another expression like 'enclosure' is more suitable to convey a concept of an architectural construction, since it implies being surrounded by any kind of boundary. Thinking about this element as a part of the whole system of the mosque architecture, it becomes apparent that the boundary is the value which gives this element its architectural importance. Any further explanation about the kind of this boundary comes to specify the material used to establish the maqsura of a particular building. Example 11: describing iwan as a vaulted hall (Creswell, 1989: 13). This sign is illustrated in the previous section. Taking into consideration that its distinctive feature is being open into a courtyard, it becomes clear that this description lacks the sign‟s value. The signifier „vaulted hall‟ may 56 recall an image of a design used heavily in Islamic architecture, since most of its buildings consisted of vaulted halls. What makes iwan identified as a discrete element is absent. The design of the mosque where a courtyard is surrounded by a number of iwans is perceived differently when the description is limited to the core. Constructing few rooms on the sides of a courtyard is not a remarkable design for the reader. The aim of leaving one side open to the courtyard is to avoid facing light suddenly ( 0217حواط، ). When worshippers go out to the courtyard, they first pass through a space of dim light. This space is not dark nor fully lighted. When they stay in an iwan for a time, they prepare themselves for going out to the sunlight gradually. Example 12: describing mashrabiya as lattice windows (Hattstein, 2007:190). Mashrabiya is an element employed by Muslims to attain more privacy for people, especially women. It is a projection of a window or a small balcony covered with lattice wood, see figure (11). This screen allows people inside the house to see what is outside and protect them from being exposed to passers-by. Moreover, people used mashrabiya to put water jars to keep it cold as long as possible ( 0217إثشاهٍى، ). 57 Figure (11): two mashrabiyas of different sizes. Above them are small lattice windows ( ،ًنًع 1996 :95 ). The image that might be perceived from the provided description does not signify mashrabiya. There are various designs of windows that are composed of lattice screens. Two lattice windows can be noticed above the two mashrabiyas in figure (11). The Islamic lattice of mashrabiya has different decorated designs and ornamental carvings. However, what is important to help the reader signify this element is not these delicate details. First, lattice screens of mashrabiya is made of only wood, and wooden lattice is rarely used in windows unlike metal. This characteristic is related to its function of keeping water cold in jars. In addition, mashrabiya differs from other types of windows in being projected to form a small balcony in some cases. The combination of these two characteristics represents this sign more accurately, and they are expected to differentiate it from other similar signs. Another translation detected is „windows covered with wooden lattices‟ (Hattstein, 2007: 183). This description avoids lack of one aspect which is the wooden material. It still demands more accurate description of 58 the window design. „Wooden lattices‟ is also a description provided by the same author. The problem of this description is that it lacks representation of the core entity of this element. The screen is considered sufficient to represent the sign. It is probable that the author intended to focus on this part of mashrabiya. This probability precludes evaluating this translation as a lack. However, it is beneficial to draw readers‟ attention to this point. The lattice screen does not represent the whole entity, since it is employed as decorative panels in various Islamic elements such as minbar (pulpit). 3.2.3 Inaccurate sign representation It is observed that some translations convey both the core and value of the sign but they are still problematic due to inaccurate representation of the value. Translators of Islamic architecture signs draw analogies to compare an element‟s design with a shape of a natural figure. In other cases, translators represent a part as a whole. In a sense, they represent only one part of the sign or an example of its use. The following examples demonstrate these cases. Example 13: describing muqarnas as stalactite (Rice, 1965: 172) or a honeycomb (Hattstein, 2007: 178). Describing the decorative technique ‘muqarnas’ as stalactite conveys its value, since there is no other technique in any period that employs a similar decorative design. The honeycomb image also works to recall a distinguished element. In both cases, the translators have recourse to 59 natural figures thought to make the perception process of the sign easier for the reader. However, both descriptions depict the value inaccurately. Muqarnas, as figure (12) shows, is composed of a series of small niches imposed to decorate an element like a dome, vault, or squinch ( 0219دسوٌش، ). The sides of some niches are stretched down to form a stalactite-like shape (Petersen, 1996) ( 1999وصٌشي، ). That‟s why it is called a stalactite design. However, this figure gives incorrect representation of the sign. Niches of the muqarnas are constructed and arranged through careful measurements, whereas a stalactite image lacks organization. This natural figure is comprised of dripping parts hanging on the roof of a cave. No order controls its shape and length. This contradicts one fundamental characteristic of Islamic architecture which is depending on accurate organization and precise measures. Dickerson‟s description of the Islamic art productions emphasizes this point. He says: „to be considered beautiful, Islamic art must be symmetrical, unified, and balanced‟ (2013: 65). These are aesthetic principles of Islamic art in general, and Islamic architecture in particular. Furthermore, not all muqarnas designs have stalactite stretches. Thus, this figure could not be used to represent the typical image of this element. On the other hand, the image of a honeycomb conveys a sort of organized composition. Thus, a honeycomb depicts a more accurate image of this sign. Even though its constituent parts are hexagons, which are different from the niches of a muqarnas, this degree of discrepancy is 62 somehow acceptable. It could be compensated by further explication when possible. Figure (12): a decorative design of muqarnas (Harris, 2006: 650) The best strategy is to represent this sign by its constituent components. In addition, these natural figures could be used to make a simile. By this way, stalactite and honeycombs are employed to facilitate visualizing the signified instead of representing them as equivalent images. It is also possible to use stalactite or honeycombs alone to recall this sign after being illustrated in its first mention in the text. Example 14: describing Takfit\ انزكفٍذ technique as inlaying bronze with silver or copper (Rice, 1965: 137). Takfit procedure is defined as adorning a kind of metal by inlaying thin pieces of a more valuable one ( 0222سصق، ). Gold and silver, for example, were used to decorate copper and bronze. Some kinds of copper were also used to decorate bronze. Various kinds of metals were inlaid in the same 61 piece in some cases. This technique was applied to decorate the doors of some mosques ( 0220سفبعً، ). The provided description limits the value of this technique to a particular example of its application. It represents a part of this sign as being the whole concept. The perception which the reader is likely to receive is restricted to inlaying silver and copper in a piece made of bronze. Illustrating the method of this technique is a better strategy to convey an accurate conception about this sign. This strategy may succeed to provide a sufficient description, if the examples of the technique application is more limited to be all included in the description. Al Tat’im\ انزطعٍى, which is another decorative technique, is translated as a method of inlaying the wood with ivory, bone, or mother-of- pearl ( 0222سصق، ). In this translation, the description manages to convey a complete idea about this technique, as its application is restricted to the mentioned materials. 3.2.4 Foreign signs without explication The strategy by which a translator uses the SL term in the TT using TL letters is called transference. It is also called by other terms: transliteration, and transcription. This strategy is only used when the signified element belongs exclusively to the SL culture, as there is no sense in conveying a term which signifies a universal sign into the TL culture by transference strategy. In this procedure, the SL signifier is transferred into the TL 60 semiosphere, giving it another sound-image, to emphasize that this sign is foreign. Descriptive equivalents using neutral terms and cultural equivalents may cover the foreignness of a sign. Thus, this strategy is applied to make the reader always aware that this sign is part of another system. Even though transference gives the SL culture more importance, it is certainly not enough by itself. Newmark (1988) emphasizes that this strategy must be complemented with another translation strategy to explain the meaning for the reader. The reader may have no idea about the nature of the signified element of this transferred term except for an assumption of being a foreign concept. It is the translator‟s mission to make ideas clear for the reader to enable him/her to get knowledge. Hatim also demonstrates that depending on the transference strategy as a solution in semiotic translation between two different cultures „leaves an information gap‟ (1990: 119). As for the collected data, Creswell transfers terms of Islamic architecture without accompanying them with another explicating expression more than the other writers. It is probable that the writer, since he is a specialist in this field, thinks that the reader finds these terms comprehensible. Creswell, specifically, spent a period of his life in the Arabic world teaching architecture for Arab students. Therefore, his knowledge of Islamic architecture, besides engaging in the Arabic Islamic community for some period, make him part of this semiosphere. 63 This strategy is occasionally used by the other writers when the term is mentioned for the second or the third time. For the first mention, they either use the transferred term with a cultural or descriptive equivalent or they use only one of these two strategies without a transferred term. It is reasonable to use transference strategy alone later in the text after being mentioned accompanied by explication. The writer/ translator makes sure that the sign is explained, so that the reader becomes familiar with it. Using the transferred term in its first mention in the text should not be defensible. Example 15: all existing maqsuras are open screens of mashrabiya (Creswell, 1958: 9). The first term „maqsura‟ is discussed in a previous paragraph. When the writer presents it for the reader the first time, he explains it extensively. Then, he started to use the transferred term without explanation, as in this