An-Najah National University Faculty of Graduate Studies Assessment of the Master Planning Practices in the Palestinian Rural Areas under the Israeli Occupation in the West Bank By Reema Jehad Sou'd Mansour Supervisor Dr. Ali Abdelhamid Co- Supervisor Dr. Zahraa Zawawi This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in Urban and Regional Planning Engineering, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine. 2017 II Assessment of the Master Planning Practices in the Palestinian Rural Areas under the Israeli Occupation in the West Bank By Reema Jehad Sou'd Mansour This Thesis was defended successfully on 20 /12/2017 and approved by: Signature Committee MembersDefense  Dr. Ali Abdelhamid/ Supervisor ---------------------------  Dr. Zahraa Zawawi/Co-Supervisor ---------------------------  Dr. Emad Dawwas/Internal Examiner ---------------------------  Dr. Ahmad EL-Atrash/ External Examiner --------------------------- III Dedication To those who stood by me all. To my mother and father, the dearest one’s. To my brothers and sisters, and especially to Eng. Ihab Mansour, Mrs. Shireen Mansour, Dr. Shaden Mansour, and Dr. Najla’ Mansour. To my collogues in my master degree. And to those who will walk on this subject with and after me. I dedicate my humble research… IV Acknowledgement I would like to extend my thanks and appreciation to all those who helped me in this research, professors, colleagues, and researchers, especially Dr. Ali Abdelhamid and Dr. Zahraa Zawawi for their help and supervision of the research, and I thank also Dr. Emad Dawwas for his help. I would also like to thank all those who helped me in this research from government institutions, private companies and individuals, especially the International Peace and Cooperation center (IPCC), and the Global Group for Engineering & Consulting (Ma’alem Company) that contributed to this modest work. You have all my love, respect and appreciation… V االقرار أنا الموقع أدناه مقدم الرسالة التي تحمل العنوان : Assessment of the Master Planning Practices in the Palestinian Rural Areas under the Israeli Occupation in the West Bank ـت اإلشارة إليه قر بأن ما اشتملت عليه هذه الرسالة إنما هي نتاج جهدي الخاص، باسـتثناء مـا تمأ ة علمية أو بحث حيثما ورد، وان هذه الرسالة ككل، أو أي جزء منها لم يقدم من قبل لنيل أيـة درجـ ي أو بحثي لدى أية مؤسسة تعليمية أو بحثية أخرى.علم Declaration The work provided in this thesis, unless otherwise referenced, is the researcher's own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or qualification. :Student's name اسم الطالب: Signature: وقيع: الت Date: التاريخ: VI Abbreviations AREA C Palestinian Areas with a Control of Israeli Military Occupation AREA A Palestinian Areas and Control for the Palestinian Authority AREA B Palestinian Areas with a Joint Control ICA Israeli Civil Administration MOLG Ministry of Local Government OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development CSD Commission on Sustainable Development PLO Palestine liberation Organization PCBS Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics MOPIC Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation PA Palestinian Authority HPC Higher Planning Council CPD Central Planning Department GIS Geographic Information System OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs IPCC International Peace and Cooperation Center MA’ALEM Global Group for Engineering & Consulting ARIJ Applied Research Institute Jerusalem NGOs Non-Governmental Organization PIF Palestine Investment Fund VII Table of Contents Acknowledgement ....................................................................................... IV Declaration ................................................................................................... V Abbreviations .............................................................................................. VI Table of Contents ...................................................................................... VII List of Tabels ............................................................................................... XI List of Figures ........................................................................................... XII List of Maps ............................................................................................. XIV Abstract ................................................................................................... XVII Chapter One ................................................................................................... 1 General Framwork of the Study .................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Definition ............................................................................... 3 1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................. 5 1.4 Research Question and Motivation ...................................................... 6 1.5 Research Methodology ........................................................................ 7 1.6 Limitations ........................................................................................... 9 1.7 Study Outline ..................................................................................... 10 Chapter Two ................................................................................................ 11 Planning Process and Context ..................................................................... 11 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 11 2.2 Spatial planning.................................................................................. 12 2.2.1 National Planning ........................................................................ 14 2.2.2 Regional Planning ........................................................................ 16 2.3 Rural Planning Standards ................................................................... 32 2.3.1 International Rural Planning (The Case of England) .................. 32 2.3.2 Regional Rural Planning (The Case of Saudi Arabia) ................. 37 2.4 Summary ............................................................................................ 40 VIII Chapter Three .............................................................................................. 42 Rural Planing Experience in Palestine ........................................................ 42 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 42 3.2 Rural Planning History in Palestine ................................................... 43 3.2.1 The Ottoman Period (1517- 1917) ............................................... 43 3.2.2 British Mandate Period (1917-1948): .......................................... 48 3.2.3 Jordanian Period (1948-1967): .................................................... 53 3.2.4 Israeli Occupation Period (1967-1994): ...................................... 56 3.2.5 Palestinian Authority (1994-Now) .............................................. 65 3.3 Rural Planning in Area (C) ................................................................ 71 3.3.1 Israeli Civil Administration Procedures ...................................... 75 3.3.2 The Role of the Palestinian Planner............................................. 77 3.3.3 Importance of Area (C) ................................................................ 78 3.3.4 Challenges Facing the Rural Planning in Area (C) ..................... 81 3.4 Summary ............................................................................................ 82 Chapter Four ................................................................................................ 84 Rural Planning Practise in West Bank Under Israeli Occupation .............. 84 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 84 4.2 Ras Tira and Daba'a Village .............................................................. 87 4.2.1 General Description ..................................................................... 87 Table (4.1): Population Change in Ras Tira and Daba’a (1997-2016). 92 Source: IPCC and Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics .................. 92 Table (4.2): Age Categories in 2010 in Ras Tira and Daba’a .............. 92 Source: IPCC, 2010. ............................................................................. 92 4.2.2 Master Plan ................................................................................ 101 4.2.3. Evaluation of the Master Plan ................................................... 106 4.3. Al-Midya Village ............................................................................ 110 4.3.1 General Description ................................................................... 110 IX Table (4.3): Population Change in Al-Midya (1997-2016) ................ 113 Source: Ma’alem, 2014 and PCBS, 2017. .......................................... 113 Table (4.4): Age categories in 2014 in Al-Midya .............................. 114 Table (4.5): Areas of Al-Midya Lands ............................................... 116 4.3.2 Master plan................................................................................. 121 4.3.3. Evaluation the Master Plan ....................................................... 127 4.4 Susiya Village .................................................................................. 130 4.4.1 General Description ................................................................... 130 Table (4.6): Population Change in Susiya (1997-2016) ..................... 133 Source: IPCC,2012 and PCBS, 2017 ................................................. 133 Table (4.7): Age Categories in 2012 in Susiya. .................................. 134 4.4.2. Master Plan ............................................................................... 140 An assessment of the current needs must be followed by a prediction of future needs for 2030. The village’s infrastructure and services will be planned according to these needs allowing a socially and economically viable community to progress. .................................................................. 141 4.4.3. Evaluation of the Master Plan ................................................... 146 4.5 Summary .......................................................................................... 151 Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 153 Assessment of Rural Planning Practices Under Israeli Occupation ......... 153 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 153 5.2 Feedback on Rural Planning Practices under the Israeli Occupation (Area (C)) ............................................................................................... 155 5.3 Assessing the Process of Rural Planning under Israeli Occupation (Area C) .................................................................................................. 158 5.3.1 Assessing through International Case of Rural Planning .......... 158 Table (5.1): Investigation of the Extent of the Case Studies Achievement of the Principles and Goals of International Rural planning .............. 159 X 5.3.2 Assessing through Regional Case of Rural Planning ................ 164 Table (5.2): Investigation of the Extent of the case Studies Achievement of the General features of Saudi Village Planning ............................. 165 5.3.3 Assessing through Space Syntax Analysis ................................ 169 5.3.4 Assessing through the required areas in the plan (planning, modification, approval) ....................................................................... 184 5.4 Strength and Weakness of the Palestinian Experience in Rural Planning ................................................................................................................ 193 5.5 Proposed Instructions for Palestinian Rural Planning ..................... 195 5.5.1. The peculiarity of Palestinian Rural Areas ............................... 195 5.5.2 Proposed Instructions Requirements ......................................... 197 5.5.3 Proposed Instructions for the Palestinian Rural Planning ......... 200 5.5.4 Instructions Limitations and Implementations .......................... 203 Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 205 Conclusions and Recommendations ......................................................... 205 6.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................... 205 6.2 Recommendations ............................................................................ 207 References ................................................................................................. 210 Logan, J. (1989), Ozone in rural areas of the United States, Journal of Geophysical Research. Atmospheres. ....................................................... 213 ب ........................................................................................................... الملخص XI List of Tabels Table (4.1): Population Change in Ras Tira and Daba’a (1997-2016) ....... 92 Table (4.2): Age Categories in 2010 in Ras Tira and Daba’a ..................... 92 Table (4.3): Population Change in Al-Midya (1997-2016) ...................... 113 Table (4.4): Age categories in 2014 in Al-Midya ..................................... 114 Table (4.5): Areas of Al-Midya Lands ...................................................... 116 Table (4.6): Population Change in Susiya (1997-2016) ........................... 133 Table (4.7): Age Categories in 2012 in Susiya. ........................................ 134 Table (5.1): Investigation of the Extent of the Case Studies Achievement of the Principles and Goals of International Rural planning .... 159 Table (5.2): Investigation of the Extent of the case Studies Achievement of the General features of Saudi Village Planning .................... 165 XII List of Figures Figure (1.1): Research Methodology Flowchart ........................................... 9 Figure (2.1): Conceptual Model –Rural Planning through Spatial Planning ............................................................................................... 14 Figure (3.1): The Palestinian Rural Planning Process under Israeli occupation, Researcher, 2017 ............................................... 71 Figure (3.2): Basic and Secondary requirements of the Rural Master Plan/ Source: IPCC, 2013 .............................................................. 73 Figure (3.3): The planning and validation process of the village master plan/ Source: IPCC, 2013 .............................................................. 76 Figure (3.4): Methodology of preparing rural plan in Area (C) / Source: IPCC, 2013 ............................................................................ 78 Figure (4.1): Ras Tira and Daba’a General View /Source: IPCC: International Peace and Cooperation Center, 2010. ............. 87 Figure (4.2): Farmland and Roads Situation in Ras Tira & Daba’a / Source: IPCC, 2013. ........................................................................... 98 Figure (4.3): Meetings between village representatives and planning staff in Ras Tira & Daba’a/Source: IPCC ....................................... 105 Figure (4.4): The Israeli Determination Surrounding Ras Tira and Daba’a Village (the Separation Wall and the Alfei Menashe Settlement)/Source: IPCC. .................................................. 110 Figure (4.5): Al-Midya General View /Source: Ma’alem: Global Group for Engineering & Consulting, 2015. ....................................... 111 Figure (4.6): Roads Condition and Public Spaces in Al-Midya / Source: Ma’alem, 2015. ................................................................... 122 Figure (4.7): Meetings between village representatives and planning staff in Al-Midya/source: Ma’alem ................................................ 126 Figure (4.8): Susiya General View /Source: IPCC, 2012. ........................ 131 XIII Figure (4.9): Roads and Water Networks Condition in Susiya / Source: IPCC ............................................................................................. 141 Figure (4.10): Meetings between Village Representatives and Planning Staff in Susiya /Source: IPCC, 2012. .......................................... 145 Figure (5.1): Proposed Instructions requirements /Source: Researcher, 2017. ............................................................................................. 197 XIV List of Maps Map (2.1): Population of the Palestinian Communities- 2016 /MOLG (2016). ................................................................................................... 28 Map (3.1): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- Ottoman Era / Source: Al- Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017....................... 47 Map (3.2): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- British Mandate (1920- 1917) / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017. .......................................................................................... 51 Map (3.3): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- British Mandate (1948- 1939) / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017. .......................................................................................... 52 Map (3.4): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- Jordanian Period / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017. ................ 55 Map (3.5): The borders of the West Bank and the Palestinian governorates through the borders of the mandatory plans / Source: Coon, 1992. ................................................................................................... 62 Map (3.6): Mandatory plans in force in the West Bank / Source: Coon, 1992. ................................................................................................... 63 Map (3.7): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- Israeli Occupation Period / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017. . 64 Map (3.8): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- Palestinian Authority (2016-1994) / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017......................................................................... 67 Map (3.9): Palestine Regions - Palestinian Authority (2016) / Source: Al- Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017....................... 70 Map (4.1) : Case Studies in the West Bank/ Source : Resercher, 2017. ..... 86 Map (4.2): Ras Tira and Daba’a location / Source: The Applied Research Institute of Jerusalem (ARIJ), 2010. ......................................... 90 XV Map (4.3): Ras Tira and Daba’a Street Network within Outline Plan / Source: IPCC, 2013 ................................................................................ 91 Map (4.4): Photometric Map of the Villages of Ras Tira and Daba’a / Source: IPCC,2010 ................................................................................. 94 Map (4.5): Building Use in of Ras Tira and Daba’a / Source: ................... 95 Map(4.6) : Protection Plan /Source: National Spatial Plan:http://www.nsp.pna.ps. ..................................................... 99 Map(4.7) : Ras Tira and Daba’a through the Protection Plan/Source: National Spatial Plan:http://www.nsp.pna.ps. ........................ 100 Map (4.8): Land Use Plan of Ras Tira & Daba’a/Source: IPCC, 2010 .... 103 Map (4.9): Ras Tira and Daba’a local outline plan / Source: IPCC, 2013. ................................................................................................. 108 Map (4.10): Al-Midya Location / Source: The Applied Research Institute of Jerusalem (ARIJ), 2008. ......................................................... 112 Map (4.11): Photometric Map of the villages of Al-Midya / Source: Ma’alem, 2015. ....................................................................... 115 Map(4.12): Al-Midya through the Protection Plan/Source: National Spatial Plan:http://www.nsp.pna.ps. ................................................... 120 Map (4.13): Land Use Plan of Al-Midya/Source: Ma’alem, 2015. .......... 123 Map (4.14): Al-Midya local outline Plan / Source: Ma'alem, 2016 ......... 128 Map (4.15): Susiya Location / Source: IPCC, 2012. ................................ 132 Map (4.16): Photometric Map of the villages of Susiya / Source: IPCC, 2012. ................................................................................................. 136 Map (4.17): Susyia through the Protection Plan/Source: National Spatial Plan:http://www.nsp.pna.ps. ................................................... 139 Map (4.18): Land Use Plan of Susiya/Source: IPCC, 2012. ..................... 142 Map (4.19): Susiya local outline Plan / Source: IPCC, 2013. .................. 148 XVI Map (5.1): Connectivity Analysis of Ras Tira & Daba’a /Source: Researcher, 2017. ........................................................................................ 171 Map (5.2): Integration Analysis of Ras Tira & Daba’a /Source: Researcher, 2017. ........................................................................................ 173 Map (5.3): Choice Analysis of Ras Tira & Daba’a /Source: Researcher, 2017. ................................................................................................. 174 Map (5.4): Connectivity Analysis of Al-Midya /Source: Researcher, 2017. ................................................................................................. 176 Map (5.5): Integration Analysis of Al-Midya /Source: Researcher, 2017. ................................................................................................. 177 Map (5.6): Choice Analysis of Al-Midya /Source: Researcher, 2017. ..... 178 Map (5.7): Connectivity Analysis of Susiya /Source: Researcher, 2017. 181 Map (5.8): Integration Analysis of Susiya /Source: Researcher, 2017. .... 182 Map (5.9): Choice Analysis of Susiya /Source: Researcher, 2017. .......... 183 Map (5.10): First Proposal Land Use Plan of Ras Tira and Daba’a village /Source: IPCC, 2010. .............................................................. 190 Map (5.11): First Proposal Land Use Plan of Al-Midya village /Source: Ma’alem, 2015. ....................................................................... 191 Map (5.12): First Proposal Land Use Plan of Ras Tira and Daba’a village /Source: IPCC, 2012. .............................................................. 192 XVII Assessment of the Master Planning Practices in the Palestinian Rural Areas under the Israeli Occupation in the West Bank By Reema Jehad Sou'd Mansour Supervisor Dr. Ali Abdelhamid, Dr. Zahra Zawawi Abstract This study deals with the planning process in the Palestinian areas under Israeli occupation or the so-called Area(C), as well as the importance of these areas as the extension of the Palestinian rural land. The objectives of this study are: analyzing the process of rural planning in Area (C), assessing and analyzing the master plan practices in the Palestinian rural areas under the Israeli Occupation in the West Bank, examining the criteria and objectives accredited by the international and regional planning, including: economic, social and environmental objectives and enhancing the value of the Palestinian rural areas. Three Palestinian villages from the Palestinian rural area in Area (C) were reviewed and analyzed as cases of study. Each case has been studied separately. The researcher tried to study how much of the master plans with the criteria of rural planning have been achieved. This is also an attempt to address the weaknesses and strengths of the structural planning practices in the Palestinian rural areas in Area (C). The study follows the analytical descriptive method, which is concerned with collecting the facts and analyzing particular aspects of the study. The researcher has also used both the quantitative and qualitative descriptive methods since they are relevant to the purpose of the study. XVIII The study shows the uniqueness of the Palestinian situation in the planning of the Palestinian rural areas under the Israeli occupation in Area (C) and the planning mechanism, procedures and obstacles together with the assessment of the whole process based on the international situation in rural planning (England) as well as the regional situation (Saudi Arabia). The study proposed certain guidelines together with the respective requirements and limitations in areas under occupation in Area (C). The study recommended to prepare a planning guide for all Palestinian rural areas in general and another one for Palestinian rural areas under the control of the Israeli occupation in particular, and also recommended to start developing regional plans to link the Palestinian rural areas in an integrated manner. The Palestinian rural areas should be studied and researched more and also the local and international efforts should be consolidated to preserve these areas and protect them from confiscation and depletion. . 1 Chapter One General Framework of the Study 1.1 Introduction The role of master planning is compromises the different interests with the different levels in a region and providing a certain context, within which huge projects or targeted areas of development can be approached. In this respect, site-specific recommendations provide greater benefits to the overall land use balance, functionality, and the identity of an area, while spatial planning goes beyond the traditional land use planning (Gallent et. al., 2008). In fact, the transition to spatial planning and the substitution of a land-use control needs a vast coordinating role since planning and planners have many potential implications for rural areas (Gallent et. al., 2008). In this respect, planning is expected to implement the rural policy and coordinate between the programs of different agencies. Rural planning is a special case of master planning; its value reflects the socio-economic and political factors, complexity of rural situation and the differences between the whole aspects of urban and rural areas (Robinson, 2008). The modern approach to master planning, which goes back to 2004 legislation of Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act, seems to bring opportunities for a more arranged pattern of space management. However, the approach recognizes that conflict will occur as a result of the multifunctional land use (Gallent et. al., 2008). 2 Due to the political conflict, Palestine is a case of socio-economic, environmental, and political instability, and one of the occupied territories, which normally has many challenges in all aspects of life and planning field. In addition to this problems, other factors, especially the percentage of population growth, weak management, limited resources, urban sprawl, fragmentation, lack of awareness and lack of updated Palestinian laws, the case of Palestine needs incessant and ambitious efforts to cope with these obstacles. In fact, there is an urgent need from all state institutions to work together; to get out with a perception of a holistic planning for Palestine with all potential scenarios, to reach the result that will bring about development in all various fields in Palestine. The limited area of the Palestinian land, which is being eroded day by day, the absentees' land and the increased demand for the Palestinian land are the most challenges facing the Palestinian planners. Therefore, the priority to protect our land comes at the top, especially when the occupation is usurping, confiscating and destroying the Palestinian land in the villages and hamlets to expand settlements. (Shamrak, 2000). According to Oslo Accords, the West Bank is divided into three areas; (A), (B) and (C). This research will focus on the rural lands in Palestine, which are mainly located within the Area (C). Area C is rich with natural resources. It also contains about 60% of agricultural lands in the West Bank and includes permanent crops, arable lands, heterogeneous agricultural lands and plastic houses (MOLG, 2016). 3 Area (C) is controlled by the Israeli military occupation. According to the interim agreements, this control was supposed to expire by 1999, but actually nothing on the ground has changed yet. On the contrary, the Israeli Occupation are still expanding their presence through building and expanding their settlements in the Palestinian rural areas, despite the Palestinian undeterred efforts to strengthen their presence and steadfastness on the Palestinian rural areas (Khamaisi, 2013). In order to stop the Israeli arbitrary policies, expulsions, demolitions, confiscations and the drain of our villages of its inhabitants, like what happened in Al-Nabi-Samueal in Jerusalem, Al- Hadedeieh in Tubas and Susiya in Hebron, there should be serious actions at all level of planning. 1.2 Problem Definition According to Oslo Accords, the centers of Palestinian cities in the West Bank were classified as Area (A) and expanded within Area (B), and therefore most of the vast majority of Palestinian rural areas falls within Area (C). Area C forms more than 60% of the West Bank, where construction is prohibited and expanded. Construction is permitted only under complicated conditions and large restrictions that do not fit the planning requirements. The Israeli restrictions in Area (C) are a major obstacle to expansion and planning. The planning experience in Area (C) is not clear, it takes a long time and passes through complex stages, and through the planning experiments in Area (C), five local outline plans have been approved so far out of 119 communities which 96 have been submitted to the ICA, where the 4 planning process in Area (C) began in 2008 (MOLG, 2016). This, in turn, increases the responsibility to follow and assess the status of the plans operating in the rural areas- Area C; in order to maintain the remaining ratio of rural areas. The Palestinian rural communities, which are totally located in Area (C), especially agricultural lands, and all the construction work in the rural or semi-rural towns or villages of the West Bank, where 70% of the population lives, require the approval of the Israeli Central Planning Department and the Higher Planning Council (OCHA, 2014). Due to the continuation of this period for 23 years, these areas have suffered from the Israeli occupation and restrictions of growth in different ways. For example, about 482 houses and structures have been demolished over the past year and thousands of dunums have been confiscated in Area (C) (ARIJ, 2016). This has eventually restricted the growth of these communities and today they are in need of a clear policies on the ground as the actions of Israeli occupation have become more cruel against these areas. Therefore, this situation creates an urgent need for preparing master plans for these rural communities (OCHA, 2009). Despite the Palestinians' invaluable and incessant efforts to prepare and then submit the master plans to the Israelis, these plans are still facing a lot of difficulties and challenges to be approved by the Israelis who follow a foggy, shadowy and procrastinating policies. This stage is considered as complicated and requires a long period of discussions and debates (Coon, 1992). 5 However, the Israeli military occupation authority approved five local outline plans located in Area (C), for instance Imneizel in Hebron, Ras Tira and Daba’a in Qalqiliya, Wadi El-Nis in Bethlehem, Ti’ink in Jenin, and Izbit Tabib in Qalqiliya, whereas there is still a number of plans under public objection, and few others were refused. Therefore, there is an urgent need to evaluate the process in terms of whether the approved or refused plans complied with the principles of the rural master planning and to discuss the reasons for refusal as well (IPCC, 2017). 1.3 Objectives The main objective of this study is to evaluate and investigate the master plans for the Palestinian villages located in Area (C). These plans are approved or nearly approved by the Israeli military occupation authority, and were made to meet the Israeli regulations and laws. Specifically, the Israeli rural master planning process applied in the West Bank will be compared with the principles of the modern rural planning. This goal will be achieved by: (1) Going out with basic principles and general instructions for the planning in the Palestinian rural areas under occupation in Area (C). (2) Investigating the extent to which these plans can achieve the growth in different ways, and protecting the natural resources and environmental aspects. 6 (3) Testing these plans with the objectives of rural areas, including: economic objectives, social justice for all, and enhancing the value of our rural areas. (4) Investigating the possibility of transferring these plans from land use plans to wider spatial integrated plans. 1.4 Research Question and Motivation (1) The main research question:  To what extent do the Palestinian master plans in rural areas under Israeli occupation achieve the standards of the rural planning layout. (2) The sub-questions:  Do we really need to plan the villages and communities in the Palestinian rural areas in the West Bank under Israeli Occupation?  What are the main obstacles to the planning process in the Palestinian rural areas under Israeli occupation? (3) Motivation: The motivation originates from:  The importance of promoting and planning the Palestinian rural areas in an orderly and thoughtful way, and its impact on the Palestinian state and its reflection on organizing the rural Palestinians life.  The limited studies on the principles of the rural Palestinian planning and its importance in the reflection of the concept in the region.  The need to highlight the occupation policy in planning process the Palestinian rural areas. 7  The need to highlight the suffering of the Palestinian in rural areas and its response to the Israelis’ everyday hostile actions. 1.5 Research Methodology The methodology of this research is divided into two main stages, summarized in the following flowchart. The first stage is collecting data, which consist of data gathering mainly from the village councils, NGOs consultant, and private consultant companies. The collected data includes: aerial photos, relevant maps, field surveys for villages, master plans for Palestinian villages, the previous research in the Palestinian rural area, reports and publications in addition to carrying out a literature review of the standard rural planning and planning in Area (C) in the West Bank. The second stage is data analysis and processing, where the analysis of the master plans of the Palestinian villages located in Area (C) will be carried out by analyzing and simulating the standards of global rural planning. The analysis will be conducted with the aid of MS Excel, Depth Map, and AutoCAD. This step also includes comparing the rural master plans for villages in Area (C), which were made to comply with the Israeli regulations and limitations, with the principles of the rural planning, which include: housing growth, agricultural economic future, leisure and recreation, rural services, environment, through a sustainable process, and multi-functional environment This step also includes the decision whether these plans are effective to serve the planned developments in the Palestinian rural areas and simulate planning in Area (C). This is done by choosing a case study form 8 the Palestinian rural areas, which was adapted to suit the principles of planning in Area (C), and have the approval. Finally, this step will mainly lead to the conclusions and recommendations. Exploring the rural master plans under military occupation in W.B. Defining the rural planning principles Previous research, publications, reports, books, articles Literature review, Field work, Personal experience. , Literature review Consultant Companies NGOs Consultant Data Collection Stage List of principles: (1) Housing growth. (2) Agricultural economic future. (3) Leisure and recreational. (4) 4-Rural services (5) Environment, through a sustainable process. (6) Multi-functional environment (Gallent et. al., 2008). Data collection: Samples of master plans in Area (C) Assessment of Rural Planning under Israeli Occupation in the West Bank- Area (C) Village councils 9 Figure (1.1): Research Methodology Flowchart 1.6 Limitations The planning process in the Palestinian rural areas face many obstacles, as well as the researcher. The following are the challenges and limitations, which the researcher faced during this study:  The scarcity of sources of the reliable information and the lack of studies published about these areas.  Many modifications are made to the master plans during the researcher's analytical process.  The lack of the approved final master plans by the Israeli side.  The difficulty of approaching the Israeli side regarding the delays in providing the plans, the approvals and even justifying why they are rejecting certain plans. Comparison Process Results and recommended actions Multi- functional environme nt: Spatial analysis using Excel and AutoCAD Housing growth: Spatial analysis using Excel and AutoCAD Data Analysis Agricultur al Economic future: Spatial analysis using Excel and AutoCAD Leisure and recreatio nal: Spatial analysis using AutoCAD and Depth Map Rural services: Spatial analysis using Excel, AutoCAD and Depth Map Environment, through a sustainable process: Spatial analysis using Excel and, AutoCAD 10 To overcome these obstacles, the researcher referred to the references and sources in the field of global information and the institutions concerned with the Palestinian rural areas. The researcher also studied most of the cases that have been planned in Area (C) by UN agencies, Israeli planners, and NGOs (Palestinian planners). 1.7 Study Outline To achieve the aforementioned objectives, the study is divided into six main chapters. Chapter one included the general framework of the study. In chapter two the theoretical background for the planning process was reviewed. Then in chapter three the rural planning experience was presented, while in chapter four the rural planning practices are showed; the fifth chapter evaluated the rural planning practices under the Israeli Occupation, and chapter six concluded the study with the results and recommendations. 11 Chapter Two Planning Process and Context 2.1 Introduction In general, planning is a process of thinking to organize the activities to achieve specific goals (Gallent et. al., 2008). The importance of planning increases year by year, due to the needs' diversity, the people's ambitions, the need to maintain the land resources as well as the need for development at each level. The planning process is reflected in economic, political, social, urban aspects and it has several definitions and goals as well. Urban planning is a process, which aims to organize the spaces in order to achieve the residents' needs and rights. It has many different types and classifications, all of which are related to one of the following considerations, such as: the desired goals, period of time, sectors, responsible body, degree of inclusiveness and geographical coverage (Berke et. al., 2006). Here, we will focus on the geographical coverage that is called “spatial planning” (Dulaimi, 2002). It is divided into three main levels: national, regional and local (Dulaimi, 2002). It is important to highlight that the planning principles and goals of the three spatial planning levels begin with the national level and through the local level, which deals with specific geographical areas, and includes urban and rural planning; in order to achieve the integration of goals at all levels (Berke et. al., 2006). In Palestine, as in the whole regions of the world, planners and governments care more about urban planning fields and try to develop their issues without 12 or with a relatively less attention to the rural planning fields. So in this research, the researcher will focus on the rural planning in the West Bank and its importance in all various fields of the daily life as well as the relations between the levels of planning. 2.2 Spatial planning Spatial planning is a set of organized procedures to be implemented in a specific period of time and at one or several spatial levels with collaborative efforts using various tools and means to ensure the utilization of the most appropriate and sustainable natural and human potentials of the available resources. Its main purpose is to achieve the desirable change in the society. This process is carefully followed-up to prevent any negative effects (Berke et. al., 2006). The idea of ‘town and country’ planning has been replaced with the concept of spatial planning. The transition to spatial planning and the substitution of a land-use control focus with a vast coordinating role for planning and planners has many potential implications for rural areas (Gallent et. al., 2008). Planning is expected to become a means of implementing rural policy and coordinating the projects of different agencies. Rural planning is a special case of master planning, due to the significant role and complexity of rural situation (Gallent et. al., 2008). Spatial planning can be applied through three broad levels: national, regional, and local (Berke et. al., 2006), and they are not necessarily sequential but they should agree with the levels of the government at which decisions 13 about land use are taken (Berke et. al., 2006). Different kinds of decisions are taken at each level, where the methods of planning and kinds of plan also differ. At each level there is a need for a land use strategy, policies, projects and operational planning; however, the greater the interaction between the three levels of planning, the better the flow of information should be in both directions (Dulaimi, 2002). At each level of spatial planning, the degree of details needed increases the direct participation of the local people (Dulaimi, 2002). The local planning may be a city, a town, a village, or a group of villages. At this level, it is easier to fit the plan to the people, making use of local people's knowledge. When planning is started at the regional level, the program of work to implement changes in land use or management has to be carried out locally (Hill, 2005). Alternatively, this may be the first level of planning, with its priorities drawn up by the local people. Local-level planning is about getting things done on particular areas of land - what shall be done where & when, & who will be responsible (Hill, 2005). 14 Figure (2.1): Conceptual Model –Rural Planning through Spatial Planning 2.2.1 National Planning As we aforementioned, spatial planning can be applied through three broad levels, and national planning represents the highest level of spatial planning, and is linked to the upper power in the state. It also aims to achieve the overall urban development, which includes all urban, natural, economic, social and environmental systems and so on. The national planning process needs a high level of coordination and good use of the human potential and natural resources in the state, which are mainly directed to achieve the goals of the society in a specific period of time 15 (Berke et. al., 2006). In addition, the central planning systems, which represent the political leadership, have been directed to make progress in the process of social, economic and urban development, which leads to the growth of the national economy in the different economic fields (Berke et. al., 2006). The national objectives and the location of the major investment projects will need to be centrally determined at an early stage and considered of a more direct political nature, including the transport facilities, particularly seaport, airport, arterial road systems, energy facilities, particularly the electrical generation and distributions, and water extraction and storage (Zahlan, 1997). The national objectives and standards will need to be established for the provision of community facilities and the provision of low-housing (Zahlan, 1997). The national planning policy framework must be taken into account in the preparation of the local neighborhood plans. It may also be necessary to allow specific legislations to apply to particular zones in order to allow the expected rapid development to take place in an orderly fashion. For example, some legislative needs to be addressed by the central government include the powers of municipality, district and village councils and the designation and review of their boundaries, the powers of development agencies, land registration and provision of information and guidance (Zahlan, 1997). In addition, the crucial issues should be identified in order to make a redevelopment of the state and decide and coordinate the relevant policies. At the same time, it will be essential to determine the desired balance of development between the different regions of the state to achieve the desired regional balance (Coon, 1992). 16 The system of the governmental planning documents is very centralized and the system of the national spatial policy is constituted by: the national spatial management concept, the programs on governmental tasks for the execution of public goals of national significance, and other planning acts such as periodical reports on the state of national spatial management, programs within the scope of strategic and social-economic forecasts, and studies and planning analyses (Zahlan, 1997). The national policy statements form a part of the overall framework of the national planning policy and is considered in decisions regarding planning applications. However, the national objectives can be achieved not only by the legislations but also by providing advice, such as advice to municipalities, landowners, and to potential developers regarding procedures, opportunities and design (Zahlan, 1997). The complementary relation between the levels of the spatial planning are clearly shown between the national level and regional level through getting out from the written laws in the upper level to the practical implementation through the next level. 2.2.2 Regional Planning The development of the region in accordance with the nationalistic perspective aims to dissolve the differences and achieve balance in the distribution of resources and services between the different parts of the region called regional planning, which is ranked as the second level in the spatial planning (Zahlan, 1997). 17 There are different approaches to define the regional planning. Some researchers and standards define the regional planning in terms of economic issues; others define it in terms of geographical issues; for example, Conyers mentioned the regional planning as a type of development planning, which focuses on certain regions only not on the economic sector or a specific project and aims to improve economic and social conditions and remove all obstacles (Conyers, 1985). While Logan mentioned the regional planning as one of the development planning methods which focuses on a particular region and aims to achieve a more equitable distribution of the benefits of economic growth and satisfy the basic needs of the population and strengthen their self- reliance and activate their role in the planning processes and development through popular public participation and the fight against poverty and attention to environmental matters (Logan, 1989). The emergence of the regional planning in the second decade of the twentieth century, where many of the regional projects in both the United States and Western Europe emerged, attracted the attention of the importance of the regional planning and regional development in those countries due to several reasons, like the need to achieve better economic growth rates, inability of government administration to provide solutions of many economic and social problems in the marginal areas, high rates of unemployment in the industrial areas and the need to create jobs and regional economic and social disparities between the regions and districts, especially urban and rural areas (Zahlan, 1997). However, the developing countries were late in the adoption 18 and application of the regional planning compared to the industrialized countries. The regional planning has different tasks, such as setting the national development strategies, the policies relating to urban and rural development, assessing the structural plans for cities and villages, and distributing the urban and rural settlements (Zahlan, 1997). This, in turn, aims to regulate the expected massive development to identify the locations of the main infrastructure and industrial projects, urban development and its implementation mechanisms and the main priorities (Coon, 1992). The regional planning is a link between the central planning system represented by the national planning level on one hand, and the semi-centralized planning represented by the local planning level on the other hand. Because of this important situation, the regional planning has many roles and functions with regards to a specific region in order to achieve the distribution of optimal economic and social activities within the region primarily to ensure the human potential and available natural resources and use in a good way (Zahlan, 1997). The regional planning is divided into two main types: the regional development planning between regions (Inter-regional Planning), which studies the regional planning problems and issues related to the regional economic and social disparities between regions ,the movement of labor and population between the different regions and the effects of this movement, poverty, unemployment and ways to overcome problems, and the optimal distribution of the growth and development to ensure a minimum level of 19 social justice (John, 1974). However, the regional development planning within the same region is the second type (Intra-regional Planning), which focuses on issues, like the resources allocation and the replacement in territories, distribution of public services and infrastructure, internal movement of population, employment and capital between parts of the region, and finding acceptable suitable relations between the population and the environment within the region (John, 1974). The increase of attention to regional planning began to decrease the negatives and the problems that resulted from the application of the strategies of inappropriate and imbalanced development on one hand, and to work on human capacity building and the creation of self-development with the active participation of each sectors and regions on the other hand (Zahlan, 1997). The modern approaches of the regional planning includes: (1) The integrated rural development planning. (2) The regional administrative planning. (3) The community planning. These types of method lead us to zoom more on the third level of spatial planning which is local planning. 2.2.3 Local Planning Local planning represents the third level of spatial planning, which deals with aspecific geographical areas that vary in their size to include a city or village, or a city and its suburbs, or several cities and villages. 20 Local planning deals with the social, economic and environmental aspects influencing the lives of individuals and communities, such as improving the distribution of the social services system, developing the lines and public transportation system, and developing a program to preserve the historical and heritage (Dulaimi, 2002), It touches residents daily needs and the current and future land use. The form and coverage of plans on the local scale depend on the purposes which such plans are expected to serve, these purposes could include the following: providing the basis for deciding applications for building permits, guidance on opportunities for development, identification of priorities and means of resource conservation and environmental enhancement, provision of opportunities for community participation in plan making, identification of land for compulsory purchase by the public authority (Zahlan, 1997). Many of the policies and zoning categories could be defined by the central government in the form of advice to municipalities and other planning agencies, which could adopt, or adopt these and incorporate them into their plans. This would speed plan production and approval, and facilities public understanding of the plans provided that this advice is used flexibly and with sensitivity to the needs of the local situation (Coon, 1992). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) divided the areas into three main categories: Predominantly Urban, Predominantly Rural, and Intermediate (OECD, 2011). There are many standards and rules applicable to designing new and reconstructing the existing urban and rural settlements and include the core 21 requirements to their planning and development. Urban and rural settlements should be designed on the basis of town-planning forecasts and programs (Gallent et. al., 2008). During planning and developing the urban and rural settlements, the planners should be guided by the laws and should provide the rational sequence of their development (Gallent et. al., 2008). In Addition, the urban and rural settlements should be selected with regard to the possibility of its rational functional use on the basis of comparing the options of architectural and planning solutions and with regard to the primary functional use (Gallent et. al., 2008). The territory of a town is classified as territory intended for building, industrial territory and landscape and recreational territory. The planning structure of urban and rural settlements should be formed to provide for the compact placement and interaction between the functional zones, the rational zoning of the territory in linkage with the system of public centers, utility and transport infrastructure, the efficient use of the territory depending on its urban development value and the comprehensive consideration of the architectural and town-planning traditions (Gallent et. al., 2008). Urban and rural settlements should normally be provided with a continued system of green territories and other open spaces. The relative share of green territories of various purposes within the developed area of the town (developed territory green ratio) must be at least 40%. Within the borders of a residential district, it must be at least 25% (including the aggregated area of green territory within the neighborhood) (Gallent et. al., 2008). As well as A 22 New a strategy of sustainable neighbourhood planning: five principles- urban planning discussion note 3 (UN- Habitat, 2014): 1. Adequate space for streets and an efficient street network. The street network should occupy at least 30 per cent of the land and at least 18 km of street length per km². 2. High density. At least 15,000 people per km², that is 150 people/ha or 61 people/acre. 3. Mixed land-use. At least 40 per cent of floor space should be allocated for economic use in any neighbourhood. 4. Social mix. The availability of houses in different price ranges and tenures in any given neighbourhood to accommodate different incomes; 20 to 50 per cent of the residential floor area should be for low cost housing; and each tenure type should be not more than 50 per cent of the total. 5. Limited land-use specialization. This is to limit single function blocks or neighbourhoods; single function blocks should cover less than 10 per cent of any neighbourhood The development should play a significant role in planning process in which to improve the quality life economically, culturally, socially, and environmentally by the progress of economy. However, it should also cover all aspect of life to achieve a comprehensive modern planning to serve the residents need and ambition in rural areas. Urban planning played a significant role in the organization of cities and towns, while rural planning played a partial and progressive role in organizing the countryside, and still 23 needs a lot of work and development to highlight his role, and this research will focus on it (Gallent et. al., 2008). 2.2.3.1 Urban Planning Urban planning care about the development and land use distribution on one hand, and on the other hand seeks to achieve the sustainable environment, recreational and entertainment areas, passing into all infrastructure that includes water supply, electricity, transportation, telecommunication, and all services which improve the quality of the life. Today, urban planning can be described as a technical and political process concerned with the welfare of people, control of the use of land, design of the urban environment including transportation and communication networks, and protection and enhancement of the natural environment (McGill, 2017). The literature of urban planning in the world dealt with the planning process and built institutions within the availability of stability, which enables the state to develop future scenarios for the local or regional spaces in the state in conjunction with the formation of institutions and administrative services for the management planning process and completed with the availability of the required resources to achieve the goals of the state and its ambitions (Ward, 1994). Over historical periods, urban planning was found as an idea in recent civilization side by side to architecture to become more practical and functional. Nowadays, it is the ability to reach a master plan in order to serve the residents' need and the development trends in any and every region 24 (Zahlan, 1997). Urban planning constitutes one of the spatial policies tools and development that seek to rationalize land use and secure integration and consistency in the construction of urban space. The planning process cannot be separated from the political reality, economic, social and any spatial social structure (Forester, 1989), but the planning process is supposed to take these effects into consideration and also propose mechanics to achieve a future vision for the organization of urban spaces (Khamaisi, 1998). Urban areas differ in terms of the scope and range of citywide services and the manner and form of their operation. Institutions intended for citywide activity for the entire population are located in the main urban centers alongside a main plaza or street, with good access for pedestrians and public transportation. Special institutions are dispersed throughout the city, sometimes in peripheral sections, and preferably close to open spaces and with access for public and private transportation (Freidman, 2005). 2.2.3.2 Rural Planning Rural planning is the subject matter of this research, however it’s difficult to define or specify. It is integrated within the third level of the spatial planning process, and in the same time connected with the regional level. There are changes in thinking about rural planning and rural studies in recent years, which examine the delimitation of rural areas and the purpose of planning that drive away the land use to spatial planning and the emergence of the multi functionality as a rational way to think for rural areas (Gallent et. al., 2008). 25 The initiatives of rural development started in the early years of planning in India, after achieving independence. India started its five year plan in 1951. Integrated development efforts in rural areas were the primary objectives of the first five year plan. It focused on simultaneous all-round balanced development which would ensure a rising national income and a steady improvement in the standards of living; the aim was not merely to plan with the socio-economic framework but change it progressively through democratic methods. It was to be achieved through full participation of the people in the consecutive Five Year Plans and their major development (Desai, 1988; Das, R., and Kumar, A, 2011). When India attained freedom, it presented a picture of poverty, malnutrition, poor standards of public health and mass illiteracy. This was the background against which the First Five Year Plan was formulated and there was resolution to reconstruct the country socially and economically. Since the majority of the population lived in rural villages, special attention was given to rural development programs. In the First Plan itself the program had a two-fold objective to correct the disequilibrium in the economy caused by the Second World War and the partition of the country and also to initiate simultaneously a process or all-round balanced development (Desai, 1988; Das, R., and Kumar, A, 2011). There are different approaches of defining rural areas, and each of which is based on one or more concepts, and each approach has its reasons and goals of that submitted definition. Many countries defined rural areas as they are dependent on the number of populations and the area of agricultural lands, while other countries define rural areas as they are dependent on the rate of 26 development in different aspects. The researchers have also different approaches to define the rural areas. Some searchers define rural area within three theoretical frames (Cloke et. al., 2006), first, the functional concepts of rural areas, second the political-economic concepts, and the third is the social constructions of rurality. On the other hand, countries have different approaches to define rural areas, for example England has the rural-urban classification which distinguishes between rural and urban areas. The classification defines areas as rural if they fall outside of settlements with more than 10,000 resident’s population, and assigned to one of four urban or six rural categories as urban (Gov, 2017). Rural areas are not isolated from cities (Gallent et. al., 2008). On the contrary, it’s a part of the spatial local planning context, so the researcher will highlight this area to make a comprehensive vision, control the planning system, which should control the whole planning process in the area, beginning with national level to regional level finishing with the local level at rural areas, which is more complex due to the specialty of rural life, the need for micro scale, and more significant details, that focus on this level, which includes rural areas. The interest of rural planning began when all development, progress and improvements took place in urban areas and people became urban residents more and more through whole world, while rural areas were neglected from the governments and planners resulting in a big loss of agricultural areas, landscape, and wildlife. As a result, the planners and governments began to 27 pay more attention to the rural areas by planning and the provision of services. 1. Definition of Rural Areas There are different approaches of defining rural areas, including what is quantitative and qualitative. Some researchers define the rural area in terms of three theoretical frames (Cloke et. al., 2006). First, the functional concepts of the rural areas; second the political-economic concepts, and third the social constructions of rurality .However, in Palestine the rural area is defined as every cluster with a populations less than 4,000 and every cluster with a populations between 4,000-9,999 and does not include the following services, electricity network, water network, post office, health center with a doctor during the whole week, and a high school awarded general certificate (PCBS, 1997/2010). This definition missed many important issues in the case of Palestine, such as the social and economical dimensions and others, as well as the topics related to different planning environments as urban sprawl and smart growth. This Palestinian definition focused on the quantitative issue and provides a number of basic services, ignoring the social, cultural and economic aspects of the population in which they live. However, in this research the researcher will focus on different dimensions that affect the rural life and will also focus on Area (C), which represents the majority of the rural areas in Palestine. 28 Map (2.1): Population of the Palestinian Communities- 2016 /MOLG (2016). 29 2. Challenges Facing Rural Planning The scale of planning needs has risen through years due to the rapid natural increase and the people’s needs, such as the need for housing, services, education, industry, health, recreation and so on. However, planners and governments must guarantee the needs of the current residents and also the needs of the next generations for all individual and groups of peoples. All of this needs to keep and conserve the land resources and that's called “sustainable development”. In fact, many obstacles will be facing the planning process before, during and after it. There are certain challenges which faced the rural areas represented in three dimensions: dealing with the changing ‘economies’ of rural areas, ‘societal’ shifts resulting from these economic changes, and the consequent ‘environmental’ issues (Gallent et. al., 2008). Each of these constraints is a challenge for planning. The most prominent of these constraints are: 1. Variation on setting goals There is a difference in setting goals, whether the goals developed by the residents or planners. Some communities have their aim of planning, that is to protect their areas from confiscation and seizure and buildings from demolition, while others are seeking to expand their lands or trying to prove their existence and embodiment of their identity in that place. At the level of planning, the outline plans seeks to achieve a better life for the communities in a particular place by ensuring that needs and provisions by giving the rights and opportunities for the residents to 30 improve and develop. In addition, the planner gives the residents an official document to explore the rights and duties to be organized during the planning process and to apply the laws and obligations between the citizens and the responsible (Khamaisi, 2013). 2. Geopolitical control There is no a doubt that the political and geopolitical control affect deeply the planning process, as the case in Palestine. The political control is an obstacle to the master plans and limits the communities and certain compounds expansion. The political controls has a negative impact on the confiscation of territories and from their owners, and thus limiting the expansion of the village from certain directions as well as increasing the orders and laws (Abdelhamid, 2005). The biggest political challenge for Palestine was the Oslo agreement, which worked on lands division and classification. 3. Scarcity of resources (financial, human, administrative) The scarcity of the various resources forms affect the overall planning process and the final product; the lack of financial resources, which need to start the planning process, affect negatively the functioning of the stages of planning process basically and the final product, while the availability of financial resources contribute to the process and achievement the stages .this will be reflected in the quality of the final plan as a good product to meet the needs and achieve the ambitious community (khamaisi, 2013). 31 4. Land registration The lands in general are suffering from ownership, classification, and restrictions on the land use. The existence of settlement, the ability to control the land and organize the planning works and development as well as the lack of ability to produce maps needed for the work of the structural and architectural drawing. The private ownership land is consider as a constraint in the planning process, so the land ownership is very important to know the limits and the rights of citizens first, and then for the implementation of the projects within this master plan, including roads and public areas (Abdelhamid, 2005). 5. Fear of transparency and control The communities have a fear of control from dealing with the official body as municipalities and councils from accuracy, review, checking and regulation, as well as the fears of the loss of their lands by the planning hands. Sometimes residents distrust the planning staff itself (khamaisi, 2013). 6. Urban expansion Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the population extension away from central urban areas into rural areas in a process called suburbanization. In addition the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development (Dulaimi, 2002). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbanization 32 2.3 Rural Planning Standards 2.3.1 International Rural Planning (The Case of England) The role of rural planning is to shape and manage the change in rural areas with multi functionality. Multi-functionality is about seeing a range of challenges – linked to differing values, rural communities, the economy, environmental change or the state of local services – as interrelated, and subsequently responding (and enabling others to respond), through the policy design and planning that is both well-coordinated and integrated (Gallent et. al., 2008). Because planning was directed to urban areas in the most of the world, people began to move to urban areas (Gallent et. al., 2008). This, in turn, made people get away from the rural areas and desert the agricultural land and stay away from them and do not try to develop or even preserve these areas. The vision for rural planning is an agricultural planning, and it’s a mix of land use for residential, agricultural, recreational purposes. The decline in funding applies much more to agriculture than it does to other sectors, but agriculture matters on its own account, and in any case there is a deeper problem. Briefly, it is that crisis in rural development that reflects the loss of confidence in the rural development project, which has for long been central to the development effort. In policy terms, rural development has lacked a convincing narrative, which offers manageable and internationally agreed solutions to clear and well understood problems (Ashley and Maxwell, 2001). 33 Agricultural activities may be prominent in this case, whereas economic activities would relate to primary sectors, production of food, and raw materials. Rural development actions are mainly and mostly social and economic development of rural areas. Rural development aims at finding the ways to improve the rural lives with participation of the rural people themselves so as to meet the required need of the rural areas. Rural areas process has less numbers of basic social amenities and infrastructures, such as portable water, electricity, modern health facilities, good schools and colleges and roads and communication facilities. Lack of these facilities hampers the levels of productivity in the rural areas. The notion of rural development emerges through the socio-economic and political struggle and debate (Desai, 1988). 2.3.1.1 Rural Planning Scope and Principles Each type of planning has its own principles and private laws. The following principles of rural planning, include the main topic related to the specific rural life. These principles include: 1. Housing Growth: This issue was largely concerned with master and rural planning since 1947(Gallent et. al., 2008), and will be achieved by testing the direction of expansion and planning areas with the standards of the available spaces and needs for housing. The plans deal with the development strategies, objectives and standards for rural development and housing (Rural Housing and Development, 2010-2016). These standards will serve a suitable housing condition for residence in rural areas. 34 2. The Agricultural Economic Future: The main objective of rural area is to keep the agricultural lands since agriculture forms the foundation of the rural economy (Gallent et. al., 2008), while the conventional wisdom in economic and community development circles is that rural communities must look to something other than agriculture for survival and future prosperity (Ikerd, 2002). Planners should care about the use of the rural lands with all economic aspects mainly agriculture. 3. Leisure and Recreational: Rural planning achieves the leisure and recreational objectives for rural area with landscape and vast areas of greening (Gallent et. al., 2008). The cultural identity of the countryside is manifested in the concept of the proper leisure use of the countryside (Snape, 2004).This is a major idea in terms of the strategic planning of the future of rural areas, and support the future roles of leisure and tourism in the countryside. 4. Rural Services: Rural services are modern objective in rural areas that must be achieved in rural planning (Gallent et. al., 2008), which every healthy community needs its services including: transport, education, social support and financial access for the citizens to live a decent life (The Rural Coalition, 2010). The decision makers and planners should also care more about providing the countryside with public services, and improve the quality of these services instead of going back to urban services. 5. Achieving Environment through a Sustainable Process: Rural planning searches for achieving environment, through a sustainable process and investments in environmental protection; rural infrastructure, rural health 35 and education are critical to sustainable rural development and can enhance national well-being (UN, 2009). Beyond meeting basic needs, investments must be linked to the potential to raise productivity and income (Gallent et. al., 2008). 6. Multi-Functional: In addition to rural planning achieving, the Multi- functional environment is about seeing a range of challenges linked to differing values, rural communities, the economy, environmental change or the state of local services as interrelated (Gallent et. al., 2008), and subsequently responding, and enabling others to respond, through policy design and planning that is both well-coordinated and integrated. 2.3.1.2 Rural Planning Goals The objectives of rural development are multi-dimensional. They encompass higher production, improved productivity, increased employment, higher income, as well as minimum acceptable level of food, shelter, health and education. Thus it covers all aspects of human development (Desai, 1988). Rural development generally refers to the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. Rural development has traditionally been centered on the exploitation of land-intensive natural resources, such as agriculture and farming. Rural development, in general, is used to denote the actions and initiatives taken to improve the standards of living in non-urban neighborhoods, countryside, and remote villages. These communities can be exemplified 36 with a low ratio of inhabitants to open space. Agricultural activities may be prominent in this case, while economic activities would relate to the primary sectors, production of foodstuffs and raw materials, while urban development is related to improving all conditions at all levels in urban areas and dealing with trade, industry and tourism often as components of urban economy (Desai, 1988). Before introducing the role of rural planning in shaping or managing the rural areas, it is perhaps worth looking at the goals of rural planning. However the aim of planning is to achieve the residents' needs and interests. Rural planning has many goals (Gallent et. al., 2008): 1. Managing housing development by working with local communities, housing professionals, developers, contractors, and by finding new technologies and solutions including higher density, better-designed homes, or building transformation through control plan. 2. Connecting the economic future of the rural areas by working with communities, entrepreneurs and investors, and seeing the rural economy as agriculture is the basic economic aspect inside the countryside. 3. Managing leisure and recreational issues by working with the private and local sectors to ensure that such pressures issues do not damage the local infrastructure or natural resources. 4. Encouraging the ability of ensuring that the rural services have a context in which they can be achieved, by involving a more positive position in housing, economic activity and others, and assisting communities to provide their own community services. 37 5. Developing the environment through a mix of sustainable development and conservation, instead of neglecting the countryside. 6. Maintaining the sectoral objectives coordinated through different interests, groups and actors, and ensuring the future of countryside as ‘multi-functional’, and that the system ‘gets rural areas into shape’ (Buchanan, 1990) by dealing effectively with the management of natural resources. 2.3.2 Regional Rural Planning (The Case of Saudi Arabia) The studies of the structural plans in the Saudi villages begin with a joint and regional planning, determine the general features of villages of the compound, and identify the population, services and space required. In terms of regional development recommendations and programs planning for the village, the planners begin to prepare a structural plan for the village itself, within the achievement of the regional plan proposals (Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs – Riyadh, 2005). It is recommended to consider the dependency of villages on the rural community center in terms of services, especially non-administrative services, such as educational, health and commercial services, and the goal is to access services to citizens in the shortest and less expensive way and thus save the resources of the state. The planning of rural villages in Saudi Arabia begins by defining the concept of villages with the availability of some indicators, which are characterized by their diversity and coverage, in 38 comparison with the economic, social and environmental trends (Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs – Riyadh, 2005). There is a proposed hierarchy of services for villages within the village compound: The center of the village complex - the service center of a village and each one of the services is provided at its level. These services are not required according to village level, but are indicators. The main decision is based on the number of population and services to be available. It is suggested that there should be levels of village services within the single village complex, suggesting that these levels be divided as follows (Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs – Riyadh, 2005): 1. Center of the village complex The services that serve the villages of the village complex as a whole, as well as the services that serve the villages closest to it only, such as: The village hospital, primary health care center, clinic, secondary, intermediate and primary school, police station, post and telephone building, shops and weekly market, public park and playgrounds and mosques. 2. Service Center It is the smaller level of the center of the village complex within the village complex, which serves the villages that do not need to be located in the center of the village complex such as: Primary school, primary health care center, mosque, garden and playgrounds. 39 3. Village Service It is the smallest level of the services center within the village complex, that are not (sometimes) serviced due to the lack of population and services available in the service villages such as: Primary school, mosque, garden and playgrounds. 4. A follow-up village These are villages with only religious services, as mosques. 2.3.2.1 General Features of Saudi Village Planning 1. The presence of a village gathering center: a main center for the village group, where the services are mainly located and distributed within its villages. 2. Regional portal: planning the whole region in an integrated manner, and sharing services, economy and transportation. 3. Road, traffic and transport network inside and outside the village: providing an internal transport network linking the various uses and housing communities, as well as an external network linking the village or the community villages with surrounding communities. 4. Public services: achieving the services including: transport, education, social uses, recreational use … etc. 5. The potential of development in the village, both urban and natural, social and economic: achieving the development, through a sustainable process in different aspects of life, and investments through rural development. 40 6. Distribution of population and services: achieving through the spatial distribution of the services as appropriate with population distribution, to include the whole village in an integrated manner. 2.4 Summary The clear vision of planning includes several directions, and the goals of these basic directions are to make planning effective, applicable and continuous. Rural planning plays a significant role in shaping cities and villages; it organizes the rural spaces and defines the urban areas. Although there are many obstacles facing the planning process, planners and residents, planning contributed to drawing the outlines of customizing land use and ordering spaces and maintenance local resources. Planning needs a high cooperation at different levels to rise. As this chapter shows, the hierarchical sequence of the spatial planning levels, national level, regional level and local level was highlighted in the importance of rural planning through the planning process. The focus was on the national and regional planning, in addition to the challenges facing rural areas in Palestine. However, the effective planning at any specific level needs a balanced mix of analysis of the existing conditions and obstacles, public participation, functional planning, place making, and financially, politically feasible strategies for implementation. The use of the England case in planning as an example was because the whole planning system in Palestine is affected by the British mandate period and its laws and regulations. It should be noted that the Palestinians are also 41 affected by the Israeli occupation as well. As for the Saudi case in planning situation, the choice was to attribute its proximity to the Palestinian situation as an Arab state, and a former state in planning, and it is a reference to many Palestinian planners in urban and rural planning. The next chapter will explore the development of rural planning experience in Palestine over historical periods, starting with planning from the Ottoman Period to the planning in Palestine nowadays. 42 Chapter Three Rural Planing Experience in Palestine 3.1 Introduction Palestine is a case of socioeconomic and political effects, and one of the occupied territories which normally have many challenges in all aspects of life due to the political conflict, in addition to many other reasons. As a result of Oslo agreement, the occupied Palestinian territory were divided into three areas: Area (A), where the control is for the Palestinian National Authority. It is located in the main Palestinian cities, and has a high population density. It is identified by a red line, and colored in brown on the map attached to the agreement; Area (B), where the control is joint. That is, the Palestinian National Authority has the civil authority and the Israeli military occupation has the security responsibility. This area includes the Palestinian villages and the surrounding roads, and colored in yellow; Area (C), where the control is for the Israeli military occupation. It includes the Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the Israeli army camps, state land and the whole of the Palestinian rural areas (OCHA, 2011). In this chapter the researcher will explore the rural planning experience in Palestine through historical periods, beginning with the Ottoman Period in 1517, passing through the British Mandate Period, and the Jordanian period and finishing with the Israeli Occupation until 1967. Then the researcher will highlight the rural planning in the West Bank. The main purpose of this is to follow the beginning of the planning process in the Palestinian rural areas 43 and the beginning of the development of laws and regulations that organized or tried to organize the Palestinian rural areas as well as to study how it affected the planning process and regulations in the Palestinian rural areas today. 3.2 Rural Planning History in Palestine 3.2.1 The Ottoman Period (1517- 1917) Planning has a strong relation with geopolitics, politics, society and economy and it is also affect and affected by these issues. Spatial planning has played a significant role in the arrangement and shaping our cities and villages over the years. 400 years ago, Palestine was under the Ottoman Empire governed centrally from Constantinople and it was not a single administrative unit, but different provinces (Coon, 1992). The first map of Palestine was drawn by the French surveyors who came with Napoleon Bonaparte during his campaign on Palestine in 1799 (Coon, 1992). However, all these attempts had geopolitical references and policies, goals and governments. The Ottoman Empire was divided into provinces called (vilayets), each one of these provinces was divided into regions (sanjak), which in turn were sub- divided into districts (aqdiya). The smallest entity in this hierarchy was the rural district (nahiya). Based on this administrative classification, Palestine fell into two provinces, Beirut in the north and Damascus in the northern east (Coon, 1992). Map (3.1) shows the administrative divisions in Palestine through the Ottoman Era (1517-1917). 44 However, in 1877 the Provincial Municipalities Law was issued according to which major towns and large villages had municipal councils and under this law 22 municipal councils were established. Rural districts were established under the Vilayet Law of 1864 and were supposed to have municipal councils, but very few were in fact established. However, many district heads and head of villages (mukhtars) were local Arabs appointed by the government and elections rarely took place (Fruchtman, 1986; Khamaisi, 1997). Land ownership and classification, and restrictions on land use were an essential factor in the development of Palestine. The first attempt for land registration in 1313 during the Mamluki era in the rule of Sultan Muhammad ibn Qalaun and other cadastral survey, which constituted a significant factor in understanding the evolution of urban and rural planning. Under the Ottoman Land Code, the land of Palestine was classified under five main categories (Fruchtman, 1986; Coon, 1992): 1. Miri land: officially owned by the government and practically by the people; Miri Land Registration Law was issued in 1858, which was the official start of registering land and giving the government the control over the state land Almost all of miri land are rural. 2. Mewat land: all lands without title deed, scrub woodland and grazing grounds, and any unoccupied land, which is only owned by the State. A good part of mewat lands are rural lands. 3. Metruka land: the land left for general public use such as highways, communal pastures, wooldlands, village threshing floors and religious places. A goodpart of metruka lands are rural lands. 45 4. Waqf land: this land was dedicated for religious purposes and owned by different religious groups. In 1877 the Waqf Land Registration Law was issued. 5. Mulk land: is a privately owned land that was mainly concentrated on the boundaries of the localities. It includes built up areas, gardens and very limited agricultural lands. A Mulk Land Registration Law was issued in 1875 for planning purposes and to enable the local authorities to control the land transaction and the tax collection, almost all of mulk lands are rural. 6. Mahlul land: is a miri land returned to the state due to one of two reason: in case the land was left uncultivated for three consecutive years, and when the owner of the land dies without heirs. The private land was rare, except in the existing urban areas. Most of the land was owned by the state. A system of building permits for towns was set up as well as rules for the appropriation of land for building roads and for regional development. Planning under the Ottomans stressed the physical aspects: roads and buildings, particularly in the towns, disregarding the economic and social aspects (Fruchtman, 1986). The Ottoman government imposed a tax on the Miri lands that was 10 % of the value of the production (Coon, 1992). Then an increase of 2.63% was added, which was used to make agricultural loans in order to improve the agricultural development; this served the agricultural sector and worked on its development and promotion, in addition to enhancing the value of the rural areas. It should be noted that planning practices attempts for systematic 46 land mapping in Palestine did not exist until very late period of the Ottoman Empire when the land reform legislation was passed throughout the Empire. This legislation included provisions for cadastral surveys for the registration of property rights (Coon, 1992). Through the Ottoman period, a lot of planning regulations and laws have been ruled and a few were applied, and there was no clear rural planning, except the regulations and classifications in rural lands that served the interests of the Ottoman Empire and tried to take the ownership from the Palestinian farmers (Coon, 1992). The researcher thinks that these classifications and laws affected negatively the rural lands in terms of their determinants and specific laws for each category; this is because they have made the ownership in the hands of the state, which works as it wishes and takes it at the desired time, in addition to placing many restrictions on the agricultural land and many of the classifications, and many of the taxes that have burdened the Palestinian farmers. 47 Map (3.1): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- Ottoman Era / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017. 48 3.2.2 British Mandate Period (1917-1948): The British Mandate planning system left all Ottoman legislations and laws in force since 1914 valid as long as they were not replace by new legislations and laws (Khamaisi, 1997). Town planning as a legal-administrative activity had not yet been implemented in any comprehensive manner while the political role of town planning was the most serious during this era and also the growth of unofficial and non-statutory planning within the Jewish communal institutions (Coon, 1992). Town planning was founded in Britain in 1909 in order to organize the space and areas to solve the environmental and social problems created by the industrial revolution and the structural changes in British society. The British carried town planning to the territories under their Mandate, such as India, Malaysia as well as Palestine, whose town planning was very narrow (McCoulrey, 1988; Home, 1993). When the British troops arrived in Jerusalem, they issued a military order on 9/12/1917 preventing building in an area covering 75 meters in whole of Jerusalem. Any construction within the walls was also forbidden in order to maintain the icon of the city. In the first two years of British occupation, structural plans were set up for the towns of Jaffa and Jerusalem. The British occupying authorities were preparing new legislation for town planning based on the British experience during the first decade of the twentieth century when the term 'town planning' first appeared in 1906 (Gordon, 1974; Khamaisi, 1997). 49 Town planning was adopted when the British Military rule became civil, but they were implemented in towns. Building plans and space planning were established for the Palestinian towns of Jerusalem, Haifa, Nablus, Gaza and etc. Comparatively, construction plans, building permits and roads were organized at both the local and central organizational levels (Home, 1993; Khamaisi, 1997). A high number of laws and regulations were issue in this period, for example the High Commissioner issued 150 Ordinances within five years (Coon, 1992). However, the planning system was developed during the British Mandate period in three main stages: the military planning system during the period of (1917-1920), the administrative planning system during the period of (1920-1936), and the planning system was completely dominated by the central government and divided into four classes that contain the High Commissioner for Palestine, the central building and town planning commission, the local building and town planning commissions, and municipal councils, while the third phase of planning system during the period of (1936-1947) was the structure of the planning system adopted in the previous phase was modified by merging the municipal councils with the local commission by Town Planning Ordinance of 1936 (Coon, 1992). Maps (3.2) and (3.3) show the administrative divisions in Palestine through British Mandate (1917-1920) and (1939-1948). The office of the planning consultant, which was headed by the architect Henry Kendal prepared and approved regional and local plans. The plans were established on the basis of imported concepts orchestrated by the town 50 planning consultant; the planning system here was developed in an industrial society (Khamaisi, 1994 and 1997). The British Mandate in Palestine implemented the plans through its control over planning and building permits because the Palestinian society was mostly an agricultural society, developing at a relatively slow pace, functioning on the basis of rural concepts stemming from their own values and customs. This limited the effect of the regional planning on the villages, with the exception of roads. While the towns, local plans were prepared and approved; they were implemented through municipal authorities, which became local organizing committees, responsible for issuing permits, for planning and control as well as for space development within the area of the town (Khamaisi, 1994 and 1997). In the British Mandate period, the planning system remains all Ottoman legislation and laws in force, and there was a greater attention to town and regional planning with a limited effect in rural areas, which serve the political interests of the British Mandate. 51 Map (3.2): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- British Mandate (1920-1917) / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017. 52 Map (3.3): Administrative Divisions in Palestine- British Mandate (1948-1939) / Source: Al-Gnemat, (2012). Eidted by the Resercher, 2017. 53 3.2.3 Jordanian Period (1948-1967): The main geopolitical change in this era was the division of the historical Palestine into three