An-Najah National University 

Faculty of Graduate Studies 

 
IMPACT OF VIRTUAL REALITY IMMERSION 

ON HABITS OF MIND IN BIOLOGY CLASSES: 

MEDIATING ROLES OF SELF-REGULATION, 

FLOW AND MOTIVATION IN EAST JERUSALEM 

HIGH SCHOOLS 

 
By 

Nader Mohammad Issa Neiroukh 

 
 

 

Supervisor 

Dr. Abdalkarim Ayyoub 

 
This Dissertation is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 

Degree of PhD in Teaching and Learning, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah 

National University, Nablus, Palestine. 

2025 



  

II 

 
 

IMPACT OF VIRTUAL REALITY IMMERSION 

ON HABITS OF MIND IN BIOLOGY CLASSES: 

MEDIATING ROLES OF SELF-REGULATION, 

FLOW AND MOTIVATION IN EAST JERUSALEM 

HIGH SCHOOLS 

 
By 

Nader Mohammad Issa Neiroukh 

 

 

This Dissertation was Defended Successfully on 12/06/2025 and approved by 
 

 

Dr. Abdalkarim Ayyoub     

Supervisor  

       

 Signature 

Dr. Ahmad Janazreh   

External Examiner 

 

 Signature 

Prof. Wajeeh Daher   

Internal Examiner 

 

 Signature 

Dr. Alia Assali   

Internal Examiner  Signature 



  

III 

 

An-Najah National University 

Faculty of Graduate Studies 

 
IMPACT OF VIRTUAL REALITY IMMERSION ON 

HABITS OF MIND IN BIOLOGY CLASSES: MEDIATING 

ROLES OF SELF-REGULATION, FLOW AND 

MOTIVATION IN EAST JERUSALEM HIGH SCHOOLS 

 
By 

Nader Mohamad Issa Neiroukh 

 
Supervisor 

Dr. Abdalkarim Ayyoub   

 

 
In accordance with An-Najah National University Deans Council Regulations for the 

award of Doctor of Philosophy, the following paper has been published after its 

extraction from the dissertation: 

 

Neiroukh, N., & Ayyoub, A. (2025). Impact of Virtual Reality Immersion in Biology 

Classes on Habits of Mind of East Jerusalem Municipality High School Students: 

Examining Mediating Roles of Self-Regulation, Flow Experience, and Motivation. 

Education Sciences, 15(8), 955. 



  

IV 

Dedication 

To the souls of my beloved father and mother, whose love, sacrifices, and unwavering 

support in my early years continue to inspire me even in their absence. 

To my dear wife and wonderful children, who patiently endured my absence and busy 

schedule, offering their endless support, understanding, and encouragement throughout 

this journey. 

To my esteemed colleagues, whose invaluable assistance and encouragement have been 

instrumental in my academic and professional growth. 

To my dedicated students, whose passion for learning fuels my commitment to education 

and inspires me every day. 

To the distinguished doctors and professors of An-Najah National University, whose 

guidance and mentorship have greatly contributed to shaping my academic path and 

enriching my knowledge. 

With deep gratitude and appreciation, I dedicate this work to all of you. 

Nader Neiroukh 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  



  

V 

Acknowledgements 

I am profoundly grateful to my dissertation advisor, Dr. Abdulkarim Ayyoub, for his 

unwavering support, expert guidance, and constructive feedback throughout every stage 

of this research. His mentorship and academic rigor greatly shaped the quality and 

direction of this work. 

I extend my deepest gratitude to Shu’fat Comprehensive School for Boys, Beit Hanina 

Comprehensive School for Girls, and Al-Mutanabi Comprehensive School for Boys for 

their invaluable participation. I sincerely thank the biology teachers at these schools for 

their cooperation and dedication, which significantly contributed to the success of this 

study. 

A special acknowledgment goes to Mrs. Fidaa Shwaiki for her generous support in 

analyzing the biology content and providing insightful consultations. I am also deeply 

appreciative of Miss Hind Rammouz for her precise editing of the Arabic questionnaire, 

ensuring its clarity and accuracy. 

I would like to express heartfelt appreciation to Mr. Abdel-Afu Ansari for translating the 

measurement items and to Mr. Abdel-Hafez Neiroukh for his careful back-translation, 

ensuring linguistic consistency. 

My sincere thanks also go to Mr. Mohammad Hmoud for his technical support during 

the implementation phase, and to Mr. Rami Hammouri for helping identify relevant 3D 

scenes and videos that enriched the VR experience. 

I am especially thankful to the participating students, particularly those who were 

interviewed, for their honesty, cooperation, and enthusiasm throughout the research. 

Finally, I extend my appreciation to everyone who supported this work—through advice, 

encouragement, or practical assistance. Your contributions were essential to the 

completion of this study. 

Thank you all. 

 

 



  

VI 

Declaration 

 

I, the undersigned, declare that I submitted the dissertation entitled: 

 

IMPACT OF VIRTUAL REALITY IMMERSION (VRI) ON HABITS OF MIND 

(HoM) IN BIOLOGY CLASSES: MEDIATING ROLES OF SELF-

REGULATION (SR), FLOW EXPERIENCE (FE), AND MOTIVATION (MT) 

 

I declare that the work provided in this dissertation, unless otherwise referenced, is the 

researcher’s own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other degree or 

qualification. 

 

Student's Name:  Nader Mohammad Issa Neiroukh 

  

  

Signature:   

  

  

Date:  12.06.2025 

 

 

 

 

 

  



  

VII 

Table of Contents 

 

Dedication .................................................................................................................... IV 

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... V 

Declaration ................................................................................................................... VI 

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ VII 

List of Tables ............................................................................................................... IX 

List of Figures ............................................................................................................... X 

List of Appendices ....................................................................................................... XI 

Abstract ....................................................................................................................... XII 

Chapter One: Introduction and Theoretical Background ................................................ 1 

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 Theoretical Background ........................................................................................... 3 

1.2.1 Virtual Reality (VR) .............................................................................................. 6 

1.2.2 Habits of Mind (HoM) ........................................................................................ 11 

1.2.3 Flow Experience ................................................................................................. 17 

1.2.4 Motivation (MT) ................................................................................................. 19 

1.2.5 Flow Experience and Motivation ........................................................................ 21 

1.2.6 Self-Regulation as a predictor of CRIT and CRET ............................................. 22 

1.3 Problem Statement ................................................................................................. 25 

1.4 Research Objective and Questions ......................................................................... 26 

1.5 Significance of the study ........................................................................................ 27 

1.6 Study Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 27 

1.6.1 Direct effects ....................................................................................................... 29 

1.6.2 Indirect Effect Hypotheses .................................................................................. 30 

Chapter Two: Methodology ......................................................................................... 32 

2.1 Research Design..................................................................................................... 32 

2.2 Research Context ................................................................................................... 32 

2.3 Ethical Approval .................................................................................................... 34 

2.4 Quantitative Methods ............................................................................................. 34 

2.4.1 Study Sample ...................................................................................................... 34 

2.4.2 Study Tools ......................................................................................................... 36 

2.4.3 Validity and Reliability ....................................................................................... 38 

2.4.4 Quantitative Data Collection ............................................................................... 38 

2.4.5 Quantitative Data Analysis .................................................................................. 38 

2.5 Qualitative Methods ............................................................................................... 39 

2.5.1 Study Sample ...................................................................................................... 39 



  

VIII 

2.5.2 Study Tools ......................................................................................................... 39 

2.5.3 Qualitative Data Collection ................................................................................. 41 

2.5.4 Qualitative Data Analysis.................................................................................... 41 

2.5.5 Trustworthiness of the research findings ............................................................. 43 

Chapter Three: Results ................................................................................................. 46 

3.1 Quantitative Results ............................................................................................... 46 

3.1.1 Model Refinement............................................................................................... 47 

3.1.2 Measurement of Model Assessment .................................................................... 49 

3.1.3 Structural Model Assessment .............................................................................. 51 

3.2 Qualitative Results ................................................................................................. 60 

3.2.1 Immersion in Virtual reality (VRI) ...................................................................... 62 

3.2.2 Flow Experience ................................................................................................. 63 

3.2.3 Motivation ........................................................................................................... 65 

3.2.4 Habits of Mind .................................................................................................... 67 

3.3 Integrating quantitative and qualitative results ....................................................... 75 

Chapter Four: Discussions and Conclusions ................................................................ 80 

4.1 Quantitative Discussions ........................................................................................ 80 

4.1.1 Direct effects of VRI ........................................................................................... 80 

4.1.2 Mediation effects................................................................................................. 81 

4.2 Qualitative Discussions .......................................................................................... 84 

4.2.1 The effect of VRI on HoM (SR, CRIT and CRET) ............................................. 84 

4.2.2 Effects of VRI on (HoM) through Mediators ...................................................... 87 

4.2.3 Mechanism of Mediators in the relationship between VRI and CRIT/CRET ...... 88 

4.3 Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Findings ............................................. 89 

4.4 Study Limitations ................................................................................................... 91 

4.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 92 

4.6 Recommendations .................................................................................................. 93 

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................... 95 

References ................................................................................................................... 96 

Appendices ................................................................................................................ 114 

الملخص. .............................................................................................................................ب  
 

 

 

 

 



  

IX 

List of Tables 

Table 1: Biology contents and number of sessions ....................................................... 35 
Table 2: Constructs, their items, and their outer loadings ............................................ 37 
Table 3: Example on first cycle coding ........................................................................ 43 
Table 4: Reliability and Covergent Validity ................................................................. 50 
Table 5: HTMT and Fornell-Larcher for Discriminant validity ................................... 50 
Table 6: Coefficient of Determiners R2 ....................................................................... 56 
Table 7: Q² predict ....................................................................................................... 58 
Table 8: Predict MV..................................................................................................... 58 
Table 9: Effect Size ...................................................................................................... 59 
Table 10: Primary categories and sub-categories (frequences and percentages) .......... 61 
Table A1: Demographic information of the quantitative sample  ............................... 114 

Table A2: A general frameowrk for planning biology lessons  .................................. 114 
Table A3: Model of Good Fit ..................................................................................... 114 
Table A4: Direct Effects ............................................................................................ 115 
Table A5: Primary Indirect Effect Hypotheses .......................................................... 115 
Table A6: Secondary Indirect Effects ........................................................................ 115 
Table A7: Tertiary Indirect Effects ............................................................................ 115 
Table A8: Total Effects .............................................................................................. 115 

 

 

 

 

  



  

X 

List of Figures 

Figure 1: Conceptual Model ......................................................................................... 29 
Figure 2: Hypthesized model with non-significant direct relations .............................. 46 
Figure 3: Refined model with significant relations ...................................................... 47 
Figure 4: Code cloud frequencies (MAXQDA) ........................................................... 75 
Figure 5: Transferring the effects of FE  MT  SR ................................................. 76 
Figure B1: students interacting with cells using VR Software in Meta Quest 3. ........ 116 

Figure B2:11th grade students immersed ................................................................... 116 

 

 

 

 

  



  

XI 

List of Appendices 

Appendix A: Supplementary Tables .......................................................................... 114 
Appendix B: Images of participant during application ............................................... 116 
Appendix C: Institutional Review Board (IRB) ......................................................... 117 
Appendix D: A general framework for planning VR-Based biology lessons ............. 118 
Appendix E: Questionnaire ........................................................................................ 119 
Appendix F: Interview Guide ..................................................................................... 124 
Appendix G: Focus Group Discussion Guide ............................................................ 127 
Appendix H: Observation Checklist ........................................................................... 129 
Appendix I: Code Book ............................................................................................. 130 
Appendix J: Certificate of Research Acceptance Derived from Dissertation ............. 133 
 

 

 

 

 

 

  



  

XII 

IMPACT OF VIRTUAL REALITY IMMERSION ON HABITS OF MIND IN 

BIOLOGY CLASSES: MEDIATING ROLES OF SELF-REGULATION, FLOW 

AND MOTIVATION IN EAST JERUSALEM HIGH SCHOOLS 

By 

Nader Mohammad Issa Neiroukh 

Supervisors 

Dr. Abedalkarim Ayyoub  

Abstract 

The present mixed-methods study aimed to investigate the effects of virtual reality 

immersion on enhancing scientific habits of mind (critical and creative thinking) through 

the mediation of flow experience, motivation and self-regulation in biology classes of 

high school students in East Jerusalem high schools. The random multistage cluster 

sample consisted of (347) high school students from 3 different schools who learnt 

biology concepts constructively during the first semester using VR-based instruction 

complying with the Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL). The 

results of PLS-SEM revealed that VRI significantly affected critical and creative thinking 

directly and indirectly. Cases of partial and full mediation intervened, showing the effects 

of mediators on enhancing habits of mind, through a sequence of mediation flowing from 

flow experience through motivation to self-regulation which functioned as a key 

intermediary factor in the relationship between virtual reality immersion and habits of 

mind. Based on the results of the study, the complex structure needs more future 

investigation. Results of the study suggested that VRI’s impact on critical and creative 

thinking was intensified through the mediation effects. In addition, the findings confirm 

that FE and MT play essential roles in fostering a conducive learning environment that 

supports cognitive skill development. Results highlighted that enhancement of SR is a 

necessary step for the enhancement of critical and creative thinking. The study 

recommends integrating VRI in teaching biology to enhance students’ higher order 

thinking skills. Further studies on Self-Regulation should explore adaptive interventions 

that strengthen self-regulatory strategies to maximize the cognitive benefits of VRI. 

Keywords: Virtual reality immersion, motivation, flow experience, self-regulation, 

habits of mind, critical thinking, creative thinking, East-Jerusalem Schools. 



  

1 

Chapter One 

Introduction and Theoretical Background 

1.1 Introduction 

A world that is mainly characterized by an over-dependence on digitized technologies 

will certainly pose new challenges and requirements over the shoulders of the people 

living it as part of the natural human adaptation process with the environment. Education, 

as an inevitable aspect of human life, has been undergoing rapid restructuring and 

development in its goals, strategies, methods, approaches, techniques, and evaluation 

systems to keep pace with the non-stop, fast going, and developing field of technology. 

Different educational requirements such as learners’ competencies, learning 

environments, and methods of teaching and learning accompanied the emergence of 

every technological development. In today’s world of education, learners are required to 

process information, rather than memorize it; they are also required to think critically, 

creatively, and innovatively, rather than traditionally. Higher order thinking skills 

became a must for future learners to be able to face the challenges of their age. Hence, 

education must seek more interesting and engaging methods of teaching to help learners 

acquire and process information intelligently as part of the adaptation process with the 

technological world. 

During the past decade, digital transformation, and new technologies such as augmented 

reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), or mixed reality (MR) have greatly influenced the field 

of education. AR and VR technologies have witnessed significant advancements in 

recent years and have the potential to revolutionize various fields, including the field of 

education (Macchi & De Pisapia, 2024). Digital tools and new technologies keep on 

improving overtime. Tools like VR became of great importance in the educational field 

in a way that they affected every aspect of the teaching learning process as tools used to 

enhance learning motivation and student outcomes (Cevikbas et al., 2023). Therefore, it 

became critically important for educators to understand their impact on group dynamics 

and cognitive performance in professional settings (Macchi & De Pisapia, 2024). This 

awareness will enable curriculum designers, school principals and educators to 

effectively plan for the best strategies to be applied for a smooth and successful 

achievement of the goals wished for.  



  

2 

Constructivism is a learning theory that builds upon the limitations of behaviorism and 

cognitivism by emphasizing the learner’s active role in constructing knowledge through 

personal experiences and meaning-making Constructivism is learning by making sense 

of personal experiences. Amineh and Asl (2015) state that it has roots in Piaget’s 

“constructivist” views (1967), as well as in the developmental perspective of Jean Piaget 

(1969), and in Bruner’s (1996) “constructivist” description of discovery learning. This 

fact makes it difficult to arrive at a unified definition of the term although it is believed 

nowadays that it is one of the leading theories in education (Mvududu & Thiel-Burgess, 

2012).  

Constructivism believes that learning is an active process (Fadli et al., 2024; Kurt & 

Sezek, 2021) that enhances thinking skills (Angraini et al., 2024; Vijayakumar Bharathi 

& Pande, 2024) and that knowledge is a quality that is built around discovery and is 

constructed best when the learner is free to discover and solve problems (Kurt & Sezek, 

2021; Mvududu & Thiel-Burgess, 2012; Sengul, 2024; Stigall & Sharma, 2017) rather 

than acquired by oral transmission of information and can be implemented at any grade 

level (Zhao et al., 2023) either within a group or individually (Marougkas et al., 2023). 

It affects critical thinking (CRIT) and creativity in problem-solving and therefore, 

improves academic achievement (Almulla, 2023).  

New technologies made the adoption and application of the principles of constructivism 

possible. Constructivism is a theoretical foundation for employing digital immersive 

technologies in education. It suggests that students actively build their understanding of 

the world through their experiences and interactions with their surroundings (Tang, 

2024). Teachers with more constructive instructional practices were found to depend 

more on technology (Overbay et al., 2010). However, the philosophy and concepts of 

constructivism should be taken into consideration when enhancing classrooms with 

technology.  

Ioannou‐Georgiou (2002) identified the major constructivist principles of learning as an 

active process that occurs in authentic, interesting, and meaningful contexts. It should 

take place in whole activities, such as projects, and not isolated skill exercises. Therefore, 

VR as a device capable for bringing about active learning and enhancing thinking skills 

was admired by the fans of Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) 

as a promising device for the construction of knowledge.  



  

3 

1.2 Theoretical Background 

Recent studies about engagement support the idea that interactive teaching methods 

generate higher levels of students’ engagement (Kurt & Sezek, 2021). In a study about 

the use of VR in educational environments (Scavarelli et al., 2021) were optimistic about 

the use of VR as an educational tool. The study concluded that VR-based instruction is 

effective for enhancing learning outcomes. 

VR activities conform to the principles of constructivism as they are whole, context-

dependent activities, which allow students to be active and construct their own reality, 

manage their contributions, collaborate with other students, and reflect on their actions 

(Ioannou‐Georgiou, 2002 pp. 21-23). Implementation of VR in instruction provides more 

immersion and engagement which facilitates the perception of complex concepts 

effectively and constructively (Marougkas et al., 2023). The study concluded that VR 

allows students to participate in immersive, interactive experiences that provide students 

with opportunities to explore, experiment and discover which makes VR the best 

educational platform.   

According to Abdussemiu (2022), biology aims to study and comprehend live organisms 

and how they function. Students must directly observe and experience the relevant 

content. Biology should be learnt in a simple and engaging manner in rich biology labs 

to shift from teacher-centred into student-cantered classrooms. Biology helps us describe 

and understand natural processes in our environment through observation and 

experimentation. Researchers note that biology learning requires exploring and 

discovering the natural world. The study concluded that improving students’ 

comprehension of biology is based on establishing rich biology labs that are equipped 

with technological tools. Students should have free access to them and should be 

provided with the required resources . 

According to Etobro and Fabinu (2017), students believe that strategies for teaching 

biology; inadequate learning resources, and students’ learning habits are some of the 

reasons that cause difficulties. To solve the problem, students suggested the use of 

various strategies using appropriate instructional materials, implementation of practical 

and cognitive strategies, integrating biological concepts to daily life and ensuring the 

availability of sufficient and effective resources. 



  

4 

Similarly, Hadiprayitno et al. (2019) identified some of the difficult topics in biology 

such as bacteria, cell structure, and nervous system. They found that students’ source of 

difficulty is attributed to the complexity of the topic itself and students’ learning habits, 

in addition to the abstract material. The study concluded that the reasons behind these 

difficulties are the monotony of teacher's style; the incomplete delivery of material; the 

boring level of discussion; and the unsupportive academic atmosphere. The presented 

material usually relies on the power of memorization and the inconducive learning 

environment. To solve the problem, effective learning methods to make it more concrete 

and enjoyable should be employed.   

Kavanagh et al. (2017) pointed out that educators are encouraged to use VR in the 

educational environment due to its ability to increase immersion, engagement, 

enjoyment, and collaborative learning experiences which facilitate the application of 

constructivism. Teamwork is expected to be crucial in enhancing CRIT skills among 

students according to (Tang, 2024).  

Students can engage with diverse perspectives, solve problems, and participate in 

analytical tasks which contribute to the development of CRIT when they work together. 

Collaboration among teams develops self-directed learning practices through 

encouraging learners to be responsible for their learning within the group. A learner-

centered environment where knowledge can be constructed through actual experiences 

can be easily applied by the help of VR technology (Serna-Mendiburu & Guerra-Tamez, 

2024; Zhao et al., 2023). Meaningful learning according to constructivism happens when 

learners interact with the surrounding environment, engage in exploration, 

experimentation, and reflection (Pande & Bharathi, 2020).  

Attempts to enhance the quality of science teaching and learning process and enhancing 

HoM usually engage learners in scientific practices to encourage the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of 

the learners CRIT (Wang et al., 2024). According to constructivist principles, the 

enhancement of HoM focuses on actively, creatively, and productively constructing 

one’s own understanding based on prior knowledge and experiences. 

King & McCall (2024) consider HoM as the soft skills that are needed for success in our 

globalized world and that overlooking collaboration opportunities is a narrow-minded 

approach to education. On the other hand, Kingir et al. (2013) consider classroom 



  

5 

environment as an important social context of the learning process. It impacts learners’ 

motivation and self-regulation which is according to Zimmerman (2002) refers to self-

generated thoughts, feelings and actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to 

achieve personal goals. Therefore, a constructivist social context of the learning 

environment enhances motivation through affecting learners’ self-efficacy and finally 

enhancing their self-regulation skill.  

On the other hand, flow experience, characterized by intense and focused concentration 

and intrinsic enjoyment during activities, is manifested in students’ intrinsic motivation 

describing how they feel and think (N. H. Lee et al., 2022). 

Richardson (2023) considers any interactive content as always preferred to a static one 

in terms of retention, cognition, and increased levels of engagement. Educators nowadays 

can integrate a combination of media in the classrooms to increase students’ interaction 

(Chang et al., 2011), and therefore, an increased engagement or immersion, leading to 

better outcomes (Behmanesh et al., 2022; Haleem et al., 2022). VR in education has a 

great potential in providing students with immersive and interactive experiences. VRI 

technologies and learning experiences have been increasingly used in education settings 

to support a variety of instructional methods and outcomes by providing experiential and 

authentic learning experiences (Lowell & Yan, 2024; Marougkas et al., 2023).  

HoM also need to be developed to function more effectively and meet the requirements 

of the age. Well-developed HoM are badly needed for survival in this constantly 

changing world (Karunarathne & Calma, 2024; Wang et al., 2024). Developing human 

resources who think, and act intelligently is the concern of nations nowadays to enable 

for the making of the right decision, in the right moment. Achieving this, everyone is 

expected to be able to overcome various complex life problems in all aspects of his daily 

life (Idris & Hidayati, 2017). Mind skills such as strategic reasoning, insightfulness, 

perseverance, creativity, and craftsmanship to resolve complex problems under pressure 

are urgently needed. Today’s world is not interested in how much we know as much as 

how we behave when we don’t know (Costa & Kallick, 2000; Idris & Hidayati, 2017). 

Kurt & Sezek (2021) prefer that students learn the main reasons underlying the events 

instead of learning the subjects by memorizing which guarantees their abilities to apply 

the knowledge in new situations. Costa and Kallick (2000) state that creating self-

directed learners is the goal for teaching HoM. Idris & Hidayati (2017) believe that 



  

6 

everyone faces problems during lifetime and needs to think intelligently about solving 

them. HoM are formed when facing problems with no clear-cut or definite answers and 

coming up with solutions. The question then, is how knowledge is remembered and 

constructed in the thinking process. This intelligent behavioral ability is called the habits 

of mind according to Costa & Kallick (2000).   

It is very important to develop students’ HoM to behave and act intelligently in a world 

that stresses productive HoM as key elements for academic, work, and social success. 

Students need to be equipped with a well-shaped and developed HoM (Susilowati et al., 

2018). HoM is a mixture of skills, attitudes, and experiences of the past and are very 

supportive of students’ performance in everyday life (Idris & Hidayati, 2017). They can 

be developed by applying specific learning models and techniques based on student-

centred environments where students can freely explore their knowledge and share ideas.  

Based on the above, this study aims to investigate the effects of VRI method of teaching 

biology on high school students’ HoM based on Marzano et al. (1993)’s habits of minds, 

namely: SR, CRIT and CRET considering the mediating effects of flow experience and 

motivation.   

1.2.1 Virtual Reality (VR)  

VR is a three-dimensional computer-generated virtual environment that can be interacted 

with in a seemingly real or physical way by a person using special electronic equipment, 

such as a helmet with a screen inside or gloves fitted with (Freina & Ott, 2015; Kamińska 

et al., 2019).   

Kazlauskaitė (2022) defines VR by its spatial, visual, and interactive nature. It envelopes 

users inside a virtual environment which creates a sense of presence that makes users 

feel as if they are living in that environment or a part of it. 

The term ‘Virtual Reality’ was first coined in 1938 by the French playwright Antonin 

Artaud in his book ‘The Theatre and Its Double’, but elements of VR appeared in 1960s. 

Imagination from Sci-fi movies introduced a new generation of VR (Kenwright, 2019). 

The first idea of VR was presented by Ivan Sutherland in 1965: “make that (virtual) 

world in the window look real, sound real, feel real, and respond realistically to the 

viewer’s actions” (Mandal, 2013). The first prototype of a VR head-mounted display, 



  

7 

The Sword of Damocles, invented by Ivan Sutherland in 1968, was influenced by the 

flight simulators of the 1960s (Kazlauskaitė, 2022). The Next Generation’ of VR starts 

in the 21st century with new worlds and universes that are both real and imaginary (multi-

verses) from flying through space and standing on the surface of Mars to swimming 

through body or interacting with molecules on an atomic level (Kenwright, 2019).  

The first wave of VR applications took place during the last two decades of the past 

century followed by a second wave in the market with the development of the first 

prototype of the Oculus Rift VR headset, which was acquired by Facebook in 2014 for 

$2.3 billion (Kazlauskaitė, 2022). Since then, the applications and accessibility of VR 

for the different sectors have continued to grow. Education as a major field of technology 

application started searching how to utilize the tool to improve educational outcomes.  

1.2.1.1 Virtual Reality Immersion (VRI)  

VRI is a state of mind that refers to the degree to which senses are absorbed in the virtual 

simulation with enjoyment, energy, and involvement (Berkman & Akan, 2019). Zhang 

(2020) provides a comprehensible definition that sums up all common elements of 

immersion:  “Immersion in a virtual environment is a technology-mediated illusion that, 

through mimetic system offering priming stimuli and cues, engulfs one’s senses and 

leads to the alignment of one’s attentional focus to a synthetic yet perceptually authentic 

reality, by taking the visuo-spatial and emotional perspectives of the virtual agent(s), 

depending on one’s imaginative facilities and mental dispositions and tendencies.” 

Implementing VR in education provides a more immersive and engaging learning 

experience.  Villena-Taranilla et al. (2022) classify immersion into three levels based on 

devises: Non-immersive mood obtained by devices like computers and laptops; semi-

immersive mood, by multiscreen devices and glasses, and immersion devices represented 

by VR headsets. VR takes the learners to difficult-to-access places, such as historical 

monuments, outer space or even within the human body. Students can better understand 

the subject and engage with the learning material (Marougkas et al., 2023).  

According to Di Mitri et al. (2024) immersive learning highlights the idea of enhancing 

the quality of authenticity of educational experiences. It can create different levels of 

realism, feedback, and interaction using high-immersion VR. It has been increasingly 

used in the field of education for its immersive and interactive capabilities.  



  

8 

Recent technologies define VRI as user’s engagement with a VR system resulting in a 

flow state. Immersion to VR systems depends on sensory immersion, which is the degree 

to which the range of sensory channel is engaged by the virtual simulation” (Kim & 

Biocca, 2018).  

Digital immersive technologies according to Tang (2024) promote divergent thinking 

and self-directed learning. Engagement through immersion provides interaction and 

participatory experiences that encourage learners to engage in learning responsively and 

develop critical thinking by providing chances to solve problems and make decisions.  

Immersion, according to Schubert et al. (2001) is a cognitive process that leads to the 

emergence of presence. Presence is a psychological phenomenon or a state of 

consciousness that generates a sense of being in the virtual environment. Whereas 

immersion is an objective description of the technology in terms of the extent to which 

the device can deliver illusions or reality to the user, presence is a subjective experience 

that can only be quantified by the user experiencing it and is the outcome of immersion. 

For presence to occur, the virtual environment should be inclusive, extensive, 

surrounding, and vivid. The more similar the transformations in the virtual environment 

are to those in the real world, the higher the presence. However, Ochs and Sonderegger 

(2022) explained that although immersion and presence are slightly different in terms of 

scope and definition, the two concepts are closely linked: if immersion is high, presence 

will be high and vice versa. Zhang (2020) argues that both immersion and presence can 

be described as a proactive function that reflects the purpose of the multimedia system 

or reactive psychological feedback that is perceived and experienced by the user when 

interacting with the system. Presence, according to Zhang (2020), is a by-product of the 

properties of immersion that depends on the degree of attention of the users as they 

displace themselves in the physical world. In short, presence in a mediated environment 

can be enhanced when the environment is immersive.  The difference between the two 

terms is summarized in the difference between ‘I am in this place’ versus ‘I am in that 

place’.  

According to Schubert et al. (2001) presence through immersion is based on the extent 

to which a user feels present in, enveloped by, and interact with a virtual environment. 

There are three major components for presence: 1. Spatial presence: refers to the user’s 

sense of being physically in the virtual environment. 2. Involvement: refers to the feeling 



  

9 

of inclusion and interaction with the virtual environment. 3. (Realness) or Experiential 

Reality (ER): refers to the extent to which objects in the virtual environment seem 

authentic to the user, compared with the real world.   

1.2.1.2 Virtual Reality in Education 

CAMIL adopts a constructivist view of learning by emphasizing the central role of 

immersion and interactivity during VR instruction. Different types of constructivist 

paradigms, no matter how divergent, all emphasize active construction of knowledge 

(Mütterlein, 2018). VR provides high levels of visual immersion. Makransky et al. (2021) 

emphasize that interactivity refers to the amount of freedom the user is given to control 

the learning experience, often through handheld controllers and a virtual body.  

VR has been in the field of education since the end of the past century when it was used 

as a flight simulator in the United States, but its widespread has been delayed for 

problems related to cost and limitations of the technology itself (Kavanagh et al., 2017). 

VR refers to human immersion in a synthetic world according to Elmqaddem (2019) and 

its educational value lies in its ability to improve and facilitate learning, increase memory 

capacity, and make better decisions while working under entertaining and stimulating 

conditions.  

Educational VR is the construction of the desired learning environment through the 

simulation of computer equipment and adding real or virtual pictures in the simulated 

situations to live and realize that situation (Hu et al., 2016). In other words, it is visiting 

the subject matter virtually through technology while keeping safe, staying in place, and 

having the freedom to explore here and there. It provides with highly authentic 

interaction, allowing the users to operate and interact with the objects through the man-

machine interface. Liu et al. (2013) proposed three elements to construct a VR situation 

which he called (3Is): Immersion, Interaction, and Imagination. Mütterlein (2018), 

however, noted that it is still unclear how immersion and interactivity provided by VRI 

contribute to the experience of learning.  

According to Elmqaddem (2019), the process of comprehension through VR, compared 

with comprehension through reading a printed document, results in a considerable 

reduction of the cognitive effort of the mind in the case of VR because there are fewer 

symbols to interpret which makes comprehension more direct.  



  

10 

Ochs and Sonderegger (2022) noted that the highly immersive VR is gaining popularity 

in multiple application domains. In the context of learning, it has been proposed to be 

beneficial by increasing presence and attention in noisy and distracting environments, 

both factors that are considered important for learning.  

In the study ‘Analysis of Pop-Up Book and Biology Virtual Reality Video toward 

Students’ Habits of Mind’, Rakhmawati et al. (2020) indicated that Indonesian biology 

school textbooks, are usually thick, unattractive, and weak. They are full of writings with 

little pictures that make them incomprehensible. This reduces students’ interest in 

learning and results in a distorted conception of biology concepts. Textbooks should be 

designed innovatively to meet students’ needs and interests. Solmaz et al. (2024) stated 

that cognitive and behavioral advantages of VR can help educators reduce introductory 

barriers of new concepts that students usually struggle with. Many applications of VR 

can be useful, unique, engaging, and motivating in the field of education.  

Kamińska et al. (2019) highlight the necessity of abstract thinking for learners, especially 

in science where concepts are not entirely tangible and might cause deficiencies in 

understanding fundamentals which consequently hinders further development and 

exploration of the learner.  

Rojas-Sánchez et al. (2023) stressed that practical experiences for competent learners are 

difficult to apply in a traditional teacher-centred classroom environment for reasons 

related to time, space, danger, cost or accessibility. This diminishes the major goal of 

education by its inability to offer students opportunities that foster the acquisition of 

knowledge, skills, and positive values, particularly in situations of risk or when 

experiments are not easily accessible in natural classroom environments and therefore 

hindering active engagement with targeted concepts.  

A suggested solution for this deficiency in education was offered by Kamińska et al. 

(2019) based on VR and its applications which can meet the diverse learners’ needs 

through personalizing learning and tailoring education according to learners’ abilities, 

preferences, and goals. VR allows for repeating the same experiment unlimitedly and 

making mistakes without imposing a high cost, allowing students to freely explore the 

learning contents and manipulate with the tools within the learning environment. This 

VRI affordance can, in turn, encourage users to acquire skills of scientific inquiry (Elme 



  

11 

et al., 2022). This enhances constructivism as a paradigm of gaining knowledge and 

meaning through active, constructive methods (Kavanagh et al., 2017). VR is capable for 

bringing students into environments that allow for the application of uninhibited 

interactions in a relaxing atmosphere that enhances collaboration.  

1.2.2 Habits of Mind (HoM)  

The concept of habits of mind emerged from the field of brain research and education 

(Alhamlan et al., 2017). It refers to the way our minds behave when confronted with a 

challenging situation that requires strategic reasoning, insightfulness, perseverance, 

creativity, and craftsmanship to resolve a complex problem (Costa & Kallick, 2000; Idris 

& Hidayati, 2017). Alhamlan et al. (2017)  define ‘Habits’ as instinctive behaviors that 

provide mental space for problem solving without recalling information. Costa & Kallick 

(2000) on the other hand, emphasize that it should be learnt and practiced before any 

specific task is accomplished easily. Perkins & Tishman (2001) also highlights that HoM 

are defined based on continual practice agreeing with Hidayati & Idris (2020) who stated 

that HoM can be influenced by the teaching and learning processes. 

Costa and Kallick (2000) developed a list of sixteen learning and training Habits of Mind 

(HoM): (persisting; creating, imagining, and innovating; thinking and communicating 

with clarity and precision; managing impulsivity; listening with understanding and 

empathy; responding with wonderment and awe; taking responsible risks; striving for 

accuracy; questioning and posing problems; thinking interdependently; gathering data 

through all senses; applying past knowledge to new situations; finding humor; thinking 

flexibly; and remaining open to continuous learning (Ariyati et al., 2020; Costa & 

Kallick, 2000; Gloria & Darmin, 2017). Costa and Kallick (2000) highlighted that habits 

of an effective mind seldom appear in isolation and usually function collectively and that 

the list is open for more effective habits of the mind to be added. Costa and Kallick 

(2000) introduced HoM in 1985, then Marzano (1992) expanded on them by integrating 

them into learning dimensions. Marzano et al. (1993) further elaborated on their role in 

learning in subsequent works.  

Therefore, HoM found a place within Marzano's (1993) learning framework. The 

dimensions of learning consist of positive attitudes and perceptions about learning, 

acquiring and integrating knowledge, extending and refining knowledge, using 



  

12 

knowledge meaningfully, and productive habits of mind. Marzano (1992) as cited in 

(Sriyati et al., 2011) describes the interconnection between the dimensions of learning as 

follows: the five dimensions do not function independently but rather in conjunction with 

one another. The dimensions of learning are influenced by "attitudes and perceptions" in 

the first dimension and "habits of productive thought" (habits of mind) in the fifth 

dimension. The first and fifth dimensions are crucial factors that must be taken into 

account in the learning process. It is important that students adopt attitudes and 

perceptions that are conducive to learning to utilize effective habits of mind. Acquiring 

knowledge is important however, using productive habits of mind used by critical, 

creative, and self-regulated thinkers is more important. Learners need to develop mental 

habits that enable them to learn whatever they want and whenever they want on their 

own.  This progression of ideas signifies the evolution of understanding in education 

(Hidayati & Idris, 2020). Marzano et al. (1993) categorized HoM into: SR, CRIT, and 

CRET.  

Marzano et al. (1993) identified the most important five life-long learning outcomes as: 

1. A self-directed learner who sets priorities and achievable goals; monitors and 

evaluates     his progress; creates options for self; assumes responsibilities for actions; 

and creates positive vision for self. This outcome belongs to SR. 

2. A collaborative worker who monitors own behavior as a group member; assesses and 

manages group functioning; demonstrates interactive communication; and 

demonstrates considerations for individual differences. This outcome belongs to 

CRIT. 

3. A complex thinker who uses a wide variety of strategies for managing complex 

issues; selects strategies appropriate to the resolution of complex issues and applies 

the strategies with accuracy and thoroughness; and accesses and uses topic-relevant 

knowledge. This outcome belongs to CRIT. 

4. A quality producer who creates products that achieve their purpose; creates products 

appropriate to their intended audience; creates products that reflect craftsmanship; 

and uses appropriate resources or technology. This outcome belongs to CRET. 

5. Community contributor who demonstrates knowledge about his or her diverse 

community; takes actions; and reflects on roles as a community contributor. This 

outcome belongs to CRIT. 



  

13 

1.2.2.1 Self-Regulation (SR)  

SR refers to the learner’s ability to employ a set of meta skills that enable awareness, 

monitoring, and adaptation of learning strategies through cognitive and metacognitive 

processes to maintain psychophysiological balance (Baranovskaya, 2015; Mitsea et al., 

2023; Zimmerman, 2002). It is the ability to judge consistency of actions with internal 

and external demands which enables the learner to adaptively redirect him or herself 

(Mitsea et al., 2023). Abdalkader (2022) defines SR as the ability to control over oneself 

in choosing a goal and trying to achieve it by deciding upon what to think, how to feel 

and what to do. Bayer et al. (2016)  define SR as all goal-directed behaviours within at 

least a minimum temporal perspective.   

De La Fuente et al. (2022) view SR as positively related to personal adjustment factors, 

diligence, and well-adjusted academic behavior. SR is defined as a personality-related 

psychological construct that describes the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate one’s 

behavior. SR adopts three principles: personality and metacognitive factors; contextual 

factors indirectly explain behavioral regulation and individuals’ levels of SR are not 

related to the way they define it.  

SR involves the interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors, known as 

triadic reciprocal causality. Self-efficacy, a key personal factor, results from these 

interactions and influences behaviors like task choice, persistence, effort, and 

achievement. Students’ progress in tasks boosts their self-efficacy through engagement 

and enhances their learning performance.  

Zimmerman (2002) believes that SR is a self-directed process that enables learners to 

transform their mental abilities into academic skills. Learning which results from 

learners’ self-generated thoughts and behaviors that are systematically oriented towards 

the achievement of their learning goals. Learning is a proactive rather that a covert event. 

Zimmerman (2002) defines SR as 'self-generated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors 

oriented to attaining goals’.  It involves three phases:  

1. The forethought phase: Prior to performance, when learners set goals and select 

strategies for meeting them. 

2. The performance phase: during performance and refers to the processes employed 

while learners are working on the task. It includes self-control and self-observation. 



  

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3. The self-reflection phase: after performance when the task is completed. It is the 

learner’s evaluation of their own success.  

1.2.2.2 Critical Thinking (CRIT)  

CRIT is the ability to look deep into the problem from different perspectives, understand 

it, analyze it, and finally make a decision about the best actions to be taken to handle it 

(Jamaludin et al., 2022; Kusmaryono, 2023; Utomo et al., 2023). It is directed towards 

understanding and solving problems, evaluating alternatives, and decision-making 

(Campo et al., 2023). Dwyer et al. (2014) define critical thinking as “a metacognitive 

process, that consists of sub-skills such as: analysis, evaluation, and inference which, if 

used appropriately, increase probabilities for arriving at logical solutions to a problem. 

Critical Thinking includes self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-

corrective thinking (Paul & Elder, 2019). Teaching critical thinking is cognitively 

challenging and emotionally intimidating endeavour (Li, 2016; Yuan, 2023). The term 

‘critical thinking’ is still abstract and difficult to define for teachers whose critical 

thinking skills might be humble. Even with teachers with higher levels of thinking skills, 

it sometimes appears to be hard to relate to their subject matter resulting in a split 

approach to teaching critical thinking, where the teacher handles critical thinking and 

content knowledge separately. On the other hand, learners are usually deprived of having 

the chance to be immersed in the domain of the subject knowledge through their own 

thinking and real-world connections, which is seen as very important for developing 

critical thinking according to Yuan (2023). 

In a study that investigated the relationship between motivation and critical thinking, 

Fahim & Hajimaghsoodi (2014) confirmed that there is a significant and positive 

relationship between CRIT and motivation. The study employed Honey’s (2000) 30-item 

critical thinking questionnaire to assess critical thinking skills, such as analysis, 

inference, evaluation, and reasoning. A revision of the 30 items of the study showed that 

many items belonged to self-regulation such as those assessing self-monitoring and self-

evaluation, as well as goal-directed strategies.   

Critical thinking depends on two components: Skills and dispositions (Fahim & 

Hajimaghsoodi, 2014; Valenzuela et al., 2017). Skills represent the cognitive component, 

such as focusing on issues, posing and answering clarifying and/or challenging questions 



  

15 

and observing and judging assumptions. The dispositional component such as truth 

seeking, open-mindedness, self-confidence, inquisitiveness, and maturity of judgement. 

Research about dispositional components of CRIT is few (Valenzuela et al., 2017). 

Prawat (1991) indicated that a common goal of most educators was to improve students' 

higher order thinking skills. Students’ poor performance on national and international 

assessments resulted in the emergence of three approaches: 

Stand-Alone Approach: Teaching thinking skills separated from content. 

Embedding Approach: Integrates thinking skills into the regular curriculum. 

Immersion Approach: Focuses on deep understanding of the content to develop 

thinking skills implicitly, which is the main difference from the explicit embedding 

approach.  

The immersion approach according to Prawat (1991), helped students deeply understand 

the content and promoted higher-order thinking. In other words, immersion enhanced 

critical and creative thinking.  

Orhan & Çeviker Ay (2023) experimented the effects of teaching critical thinking 

through general, immersion, and mixed approaches on the critical thinking skills and 

dispositions of high-school students. The results of the study showed that teaching 

critical thinking with the general approach had a large effect compared with teaching 

with the immersion approach which had a moderate effect, and teaching critical thinking 

with the mixed approach which had a small effect on improving students’ critical thinking 

dispositions. 

Kanmaz (2022) in a study about teachers’ awareness towards teaching critical thinking 

found that teachers believed that critical thinking skills should be planned in coordination 

with the course content and should be taught in the context of any lesson or subject area. 

Critical thinking skills cannot be taught in isolation of their related contexts.  

1.2.2.3 Creative Thinking (CRET)  

CRET refers to the ability to produce original and appropriate work that is useful and 

adaptive for the task constraints. It is the ability to rearrange the existing ideas in new 

combinations to come up with a new design (Sternberg & Lubart, 1998). The Meriam-



  

16 

Webster Dictionary defines creative thinking as a new way of seeing or doing things, 

characterized by fluency (generating many ideas), flexibility (shifting perspective 

easily), and originality (conceiving of something new). According to Usha (2009), it is 

the ability to conceive an innovative idea and verify its validity with scientific reasoning. 

Some problems require creative thinking and cannot be solved based on scientific 

reasoning alone. We need creative thinking because our knowledge is limited. Usha 

differentiated between logical thinking and creative thinking where logical thinking is 

selective, follows the most likely paths and seeks only relevant ideas, creative thinking 

on the other hand is a generative way of thinking that explores the least likely paths 

through utilizing irrelevant ideas. 

Creativity is essential for societal development through inventions and discoveries that 

our modern life needs. It changes the way people relate to the world, to themselves, and 

to other people. It enhances decision making and problem solving as complex cognitive 

processes and facilitates adaptation with the demands of daily life. Creativity can be 

improved over time by enhancing specific skills and knowledge, and a stimulating 

environment for individuals’ cognitive processes and personality factors, including 

motivations. students’ creativity is assessed under three themes: creative expression, 

knowledge creation and creative problem solving (Karunarathne & Calma, 2024). Their 

results highlighted that giving students helpful feedback is crucial for boosting their 

creative thinking. The progress in students’ creative thinking highlights how teachers can 

help students develop important job skills. The task design, including group work, and 

feedback processes created a supportive environment that helped students improve their 

subject-specific skills and knowledge, leading to better creative thinking.  

In a study about creative mathematic thinking ability in problem-based learning model 

based on self-regulation learning, Learning based on student-centered learning principles 

requiring knowledge and self-confidence, motivation, goals and strategic knowledge, 

were indications of Self-Regulated Learning (Munahefi et al., 2018). Lindberg et al. 

(2017) suggest that individual skills and motivation, as well as the external environment 

are essential for producing creative work. They suggested that giving students chances 

to learn specific skills, encouraging creativity.  Activities like brainstorming and self-

directed learning and creating a supportive environment to enhance internal motivation 

can positively affect their creative skills.  



  

17 

1.2.2.4 Habits of Mind in Education  

Habits of Mind greatly impact on success in learning. Scientific HoM need to be fostered 

at an early age to attract more students to take up science as their future career. To 

overcome this challenge, educators have been working hard to try to understand how 

students can best learn science. Although they used different scientific practices and 

instructional innovations such as coaching, scaffolding, and engaging in authentic tasks, 

collaboration and creating a community of science practice, still many challenges are 

facing them (Ariyati et al., 2024). There is a need for a multifaceted approach to face the 

challenge, and the solution is in technology (Saleh & Khine, 2009; Steinkuehler & 

Duncan, 2008). There is evidence that HoM and cognitive learning outcomes in biology 

are affected by learning processes (Ariyati et al., 2024). Therefore, a focus on the 

components of SR, CRIT, and CRET is required by educators and teachers to get insights 

into the cognitive and metacognitive skills of students’ HoM and enhance it accordingly. 

Effects of immersion through VR on HoM can be explained by three major mediating 

variables: 

1.2.3 Flow Experience  

FE is a self-reinforcing cycle of energy, motivation, and personal growth (Mirvis & 

Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). It is a state of complete immersion and optimal experience in 

an activity. Csikszentmihalyi (2000) first described the term based on qualitative research 

where interviews focused on activities that do not directly lead to intrinsic motivation, 

when finally arrived at a state of mind that he termed “Flow experience” which is a 

general phenomenon that is not exclusive to specific activities and therefore not limited 

to mere intrinsically motivated activities (Mahnke et al., 2012). It is characterized by a 

high level of concentration, a sense of control, a merging of action and awareness, and 

an intrinsic enjoyment in the task at hand. It is a kind of immersion into the experience 

that causes a feeling of energy and fulfillment. It creates a case of deep concentration, 

lack of self-consciousness, a feeling of control over what one is doing, complete focus 

on the task at hand, and a breakthrough in performance (Guerra-Tamez et al., 2021). 

When engaged in an activity, students may become so completely absorbed that they lose 

track of time, their surroundings, and everything else except the task at hand (E. Lee, 

2005). The Flow Experience refers to the set of elements such as the sense of absorption 



  

18 

in the activity, the right level of challenge, the lack of perception of time passing, and the 

spontaneity of thoughts and actions (Macchi & De Pisapia, 2024).  

Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi (2001) define flow as an experience during which 

individuals are fully involved in the present moment. A complete absorption in what a 

person does is a sign of a characteristic of a good life as perceived by them. Persisting 

single-mindedly on an experience and disregarding hunger, fatigue and discomfort and 

then losing interest as soon as it is completed is a state of ‘Flow’. A synonymous term 

for the term ‘Flow’ is the Greek term ‘autotelic’ meaning self-goal (i.e. an activity which 

rewards itself, apart from any extrinsic results). Conditions of flow are: 1. Perceived 

challenges within the scope of the existing skills of the person and 2. Clear proximal 

goals and immediate feedback about the progress. Flow, when arrived at, people operate 

at full capacity. The state of ‘flow’ is characterized by the following: Intense and focused 

concentration on what one is doing; Merging of action and awareness; Loss of reflective 

self-consciousness; A sense of control on one’s actions; Distortion o f temporal 

experience (time passed faster than normal); and Experience of the activity as 

intrinsically rewarding.   

Macchi & De Pisapia (2024) hypothesized that VRI enhances higher levels of flow 

caused by its immersive and stimulating nature. VR is potential to bring about ‘flow’ 

through introducing the element of perceived challenge. According to Jackson et al. 

(2008) ‘flow’ can be measured using a shortened but validated scale that includes the 

following dimensions: 1. Challenge-skill balance, 2. Action-awareness merging, 3. Clear 

goals, 4. Unambiguous feedback, 5. Concentration on the task at hand, 6. Sense of 

control, 7. Loss of self-consciousness, 8. Time transformation; and 9. Autotelic 

experience.  

According to Agarwal & Karahanna (2000), dimensions of flow included intense 

concentration, a sense of being in control, a loss of self-consciousness, and a 

transformation of time.  

1.2.3.1 Flow and Immersion  

Flow and immersion are used to refer almost to the same experience. Though immersion 

presents subtle structural differences from flow. There are apparent similarities between 

flow and immersion when examining popular theories of immersion (Brown & Cairns, 



  

19 

2004). They count some of the shared properties of the two states of mind e.g., 

concentration, loss of time perception, and loss of self-awareness, however, they consider 

immersion as a precursor or an antecedent for flow.  

Csikszentmihalyi (2000) suggested that flow is an “all-or-nothing” experience. It is 

whether you are in or not. However, the minimum requirements for the experience to 

qualify as flow or immersion are still unsettled.  

Immersion, however, has been viewed as sub-optimal when compared to flow. Brown & 

Cairns (2004) identified three levels of immersion: engagement, engrossment and total 

immersion, and argued that total immersion is not always achievable. The quality of the 

experience in virtual environments is referred to as presence or immersion. Although 

slightly different in terms of scope and definition, the two concepts are closely linked: if 

immersion is high, presence will be high and vice versa (Bowman & McMahan, 2007).  

1.2.4 Motivation (MT) 

MT is a driving force in the form of a strong desire, will, or tendency to achieve the 

highest level of success through high quality work (Lase & Noibe Halawa, 2024; 

Purnama et al., 2019). Motivation is a critical part of success in education and later life. 

In the process of teaching and learning, the motivational variable has a potentiating effect 

on students’ learning.  Motivation gives reasons for people's actions, desires, and needs 

to obtain the objective of learning. Learners’ motivation is probably one of the most 

important elements for learning, which is inherently hard work. Learning is pushing the 

brain to its limits and thus can only happen with motivation (Filgona et al., 2020). 

Motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic or amotivation:  

1.2.4.1 Intrinsic Motivation (IMT)  

IMT happens when motivation is caused by inherent satisfaction or enjoyment of the 

activity or a desire to feel better (Zeng et al., 2022). Mazllami (2020) defines intrinsic 

motivation as an internal desire that drives a person to produce more and better. It is when 

a person engages in a particular activity for the sake of the activity itself or for the 

enjoyment and satisfaction gained from that activity. Self-efficacy, intrinsic interest, and 

goal orientation are essential for self-motivation and play a crucial role in motivating 

individuals. 



  

20 

Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ expectations about their capability to perform a certain 

level within a certain domain. Efficacy beliefs are future-oriented and involve cognitive 

perceptions of skill towards specific tasks (Bandura & Adams, 1977). This influences 

different aspects of behavior, such as, goal setting, persistence, the effort required to 

master a task, and resistance to failure. Thompson et al. (2022) note that higher degree 

of self-efficacy appears to be positively associated with students’ attitudes towards 

learning. Effective instruction has the potential to boost self-efficacy, represented as 

‘confidence’, when listening to authentic lectures.   

The stronger the individual perceives self-efficacy, the more active the coping efforts. 

Individuals with high self-efficacy tend to set challenging goals for themselves and 

consistently exert effort to achieve difficult tasks. When faced with failure, they often 

attribute it to a lack of effort or insufficient knowledge. Research has shown that higher 

levels of self-efficacy are associated with higher levels of SR (Velayutham & Aldridge, 

2013).  

1.2.4.2 Extrinsic Motivation (EMT) 

EMT when motivation is caused by external factors like gaining rewards or avoiding 

punishment. Extrinsic motivation is when an external result leads to the activity (Rita et 

al., 2018). There two types of extrinsic motivation according to Deci and Ryan (1985):  

Self-determined extrinsic motivation when individuals willingly engage in an activity 

because they value it and consider it important. 

Non-self-determined extrinsic motivation is when individuals pressure themselves to 

perform an activity or when their actions are perceived to be controlled by external 

factors. 

1.2.4.3 Amotivation 

Learners become amotivated when they perceive no connection between their actions 

and the resulting outcomes. This lack of motivation (i.e. amotivation), neither intrinsic 

nor extrinsic, leads to feelings of incompetence and expectations of helplessness, 

potentially causing them to stop participating in actions (Vallerand et al., 1992).  



  

21 

According to Filgona et al. (2020) motivation is responsible for getting students to 

engage in academic activities, determining how much to learn from the activities they 

perform or the information they are exposed to. Learners who are motivated to learn 

something use higher cognitive processes in learning about it. Teachers should create 

active learning environments that enhances students’ perceived autonomy and 

competence, and to provide them with choices and opportunities for self-directed 

learning and plan learning activities that might increase students feeling of mastery. VRI 

provides motivation that can affect cognitive skills such as decision making (Tyrrell et 

al., 2018). 

1.2.5 Flow Experience and Motivation     

People’s self-determination strength is related to the type of motivation gained by the 

actions performed according to Lee (2005) where intrinsic motivation creates the 

strongest self-determination while amotivation results in the weakest form or absence of 

self-determination. On the other hand, self-determined extrinsic motivational actions are 

expected to generate more self-determination than with non-self-determined extrinsic 

motivational ones.  

Flow is a term that refers to a case where people act with total involvement 

(Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). It denotes an optimal engrossing and enjoyable experience 

where performing the activity itself becomes self-rewarding. This explains an 

individual’s engagement in sports and leisure activities.  

One important condition of flow is motivation. This implies that flow is inherently 

enjoyable which directly relates to extrinsic motivation (Mills & Fullagar, 2008). Most 

of recent research showed that high motivation generates high levels of flow, however, 

they focused on leisure or sport activities chosen willingly by the individuals to be 

intrinsically motivating. They also noticed that previous studies focused only on the 

relation between intrinsic motivation and flow. However, they assumed that extrinsic 

motivation may also be related to flow which necessitates distinguishing between 

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their relation to flow.  The results of their study 

showed that self-determined forms of intrinsic motivation were significantly associated 

with the experience of flow and engagement. However, there was no relation between 

extrinsic motivation and flow regardless to the degree of self-determination. Other 



  

22 

studies, however, found a significant relation between self-determined extrinsic 

motivation and flow. This might be explained based on the skills and abilities needed for 

different activities according to them.  

Mehta and Vyas (2022) stated that to achieve flow experience, one must voluntarily 

engage in a joyful task, otherwise, a person may work for satisfaction obtained from 

benefits received from outside sources. When students are in flow, it is because the task 

is intrinsically motivating, enjoyable, and requires effort that suits their capabilities and 

offers immediate feedback. Therefore, they suggested ways to increase the level of 

intrinsic motivation. A positive leaning environment where learners aim to learn for the 

sake of knowledge might pave the way for a high intrinsic motivation. Motivation in 

students increases as they gain a sense of accomplishment after accomplishing the task. 

1.2.6 Self-Regulation as a predictor of CRIT and CRET 

Zimmerman (1990) defined self-regulated learners as metacognitively, motivationally, 

and behaviorally active participants in their own learning. Metacognitive processes 

include goal setting, organization, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation at various points 

during the process of acquisition. Motivational processes imply that these learners report 

high self-efficacy, self-attributions, and intrinsic task interest. In their behavioral 

processes, self-regulated learners select, structure, and create environments that optimize 

learning. Self-regulation explains how students become masters of their own learning; 

they approach educational tasks with confidence, diligence, and resourcefulness. They 

are aware when they know a fact or possess a skill and when they do not. They 

proactively seek out information when needed and take the necessary steps to master it. 

When they encounter obstacles, they find a way to succeed. They view acquisition as a 

systematic and controllable process, and they accept greater responsibility for their 

achievement outcomes  

In summary, definitions of students' self-regulated learning involve three features: their 

use of self-regulated learning strategies, their responsiveness to self-oriented feedback 

about learning effectiveness, and their interdependent motivational processes.  

Ariyati and Fitriyah (2024) in a study investigating habits of minds of prospected 

teachers noted that self-regulation has a significant influence on controlling students' 

emotions, thoughts, and actions therefore, self-regulated students will have 



  

23 

metacognitive skills that will impact self-regulation abilities and bring important 

contributions to learning outcomes. The study concluded that self-regulation is the 

predominant habitual component of the mind, followed by critical thinking, with creative 

thinking ranking lowest in prevalence. 

In a study to gain insights into the nature of critical thinking and its connections with 

self-regulation skills. Hyytinen et al. (2021) found that self-regulation is crucial to critical 

thinking, and a function that guides this complex thinking process. Self-regulation refers 

to an intentional and adaptive process that allows students to plan, adapt, and monitor 

their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to the demands of the task. Akcaoğlu et al. (2023) 

believe that self-regulation is related to metacognitive skills in that it determines the 

methods and timing for planning, monitoring and evaluation processes that will be 

carried out.  Lee (2009) examined the relationships between metacognition, self-

regulation and critical thinking in an experimental study and found out that self-

regulation is a significant predictor of students’ critical thinking dispositions. In another 

study about ‘EFL learners' self-regulation, critical thinking and language achievement’, 

Ghanizadeh and Mizaee (2012) found that the enhancement of self-regulatory strategies 

leads to the development of critical thinking abilities.  

In a study exploring the predictive power of self-regulation and academic hope in the 

creative thinking among undergraduate students, Ghbari and Harahsheh (2024) found 

that self-regulation is a good predictor of creative thinking. They recommended 

considering students’ self-regulation to foster creative thinking. Lin et al. (2024) 

examined the ability of two traits of self-regulation, namely, grit and curiosity, in 

predicting creative achievement. The results of the study showed that the perseverance 

dimension of grit positively predicted creative achievement, whereas the consistency of 

interest dimension was negatively related to creative achievement. They concluded that 

individuals who are persistent and able to regulate efforts to work on an idea long enough 

have more creative achievement. Munahefi et al. (2018) studied the effects of self-

regulation leaning in a problem-based model on the ability of high school students 

mathematical creative thinking. The study concluded that high academic level students 

were able to reach the aspect of originality which was the highest aspect in the ability of 

mathematical creative thinking. 



  

24 

Ivcevic et al. (2024) studied the transformation of creative ideas into creative behavior 

or completed projects and found out that this transformation is facilitated by the crucial 

part of self-regulation of creativity.  

To conclude, the present study is grounded in several frameworks that altogether provide 

a foundation for exploring the impact of VRI on students’ Habits of Mind. First, 

constructivism, particularly the CAMIL model which frames learning as an active, self-

directed process, aligning with the study’s major focus on student higher levels of 

engagement in immersive environments. Second, Flow Experience Theory which is 

mainly explained through the lens of Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow Theory and describes 

optimal engagement as a state of deep involvement and enjoyment when challenges and 

skills are balanced and how this optimal experience influence motivation 

(Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Jackson et al., 2008). Moreover, VRI, as previous studies 

showed, can significantly foster this state of flow, through creating deep engaging 

learning environments (Guerra-Tamez, 2023; Makransky et al., 2021). Motivation, a key 

variable in this study, is conceptualized according to the work of (Deci & Ryan, 1985), 

who assert that learners are most motivated when their basic psychological needs for 

autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported. VRI and FE serve as powerful 

tools to enhance motivation by stimulating interest, engagement, and cognitive 

involvement (Filgona et al., 2020; Tang, 2024).  

The final outcomes of the study: Self-regulation, Critical and Creative thinking are 

crucial for variables that show how HoM is enhanced in the context of VRI. Costa and 

Kallick (2000) define HoM as a set of intellectual behaviours that support Critical and 

Creative thinking through the enhancement of Self-regulation (Gloria & Darmin, 2017; 

Hidayati & Idris, 2020). On the other hand, Marzano’s dimensions of learning (Marzano, 

1992; Marzano et al., 1993) that highlights productive habits of mind as essential 

outcomes of effective learning and intellectual development. Both models highlight 

engagement, critical and creative thinking as the intended outcomes rather than content 

mastery. This study views SR, CRIT and CRET as skills that can be enhanced through 

immersive learning.  Moreover, SR as reflected in the model proposed by Zimmerman 

(1990) is evidenced as a bridge through which Flow Experience and Motivation enhance 

deeper critical and creative thinking.  Hence, discussions and interpretations of the results 

will be mainly grounded in these theories and other related recent studies to show the 



  

25 

connections between VRI as an immersive digital tool and the enhancement of 

productive habits of mind. 

1.3 Problem Statement  

The limitations of traditional classroom environments in teaching abstract scientific 

concepts have contributed to a decline in high school students’ enrollment in the 

scientific stream. One of the weak points of the Palestinian Educational System, 

according to the Ministry of Education and Higher Education (2010) is that 74% of the 

students are enrolled in the literary stream, while only 20% are in the scientific stream. 

Broco and Trad (2011), considered this imbalance as worrying and attributed it to 

constraints. The Ministry of Education of the State of Palestine (2022) became more 

concerned about the shrinking number of students choosing to enroll in the scientific 

stream.  

Ochs & Sonderegger (2022) noted that VR as a learning tool has been demonstrated as a 

promising tool to overcome the traditional constraints by increasing presence and 

attention in noisy and distracting environments, both factors that are considered 

important for learning. According to Elmqaddem (2019) the process of comprehension 

through VR, compared with other methods of teaching, reduces much of the cognitive 

effort because there are fewer symbols to interpret. VR transforms abstract concepts, 

such as cellular structures and nerve impulses, into interactive, immersive experiences, 

allowing students to explore them safely and in detail. VR can help educators reduce 

introductory barriers of new concepts which students usually struggle with according to 

Solmaz et al. (2024).  

VRI is a new opportunity for the application of experiential learning where students build 

their knowledge based on experiencing and interacting with their surroundings according 

to the principles of CAMIL. Immersed learners enjoyably fall in complete absorption in 

what they are performing, a state derived from enjoyment and engagement through VR 

and termed FE. This state of FE is characterized by a high level of concentration, a sense 

of control, and an intrinsic enjoyment in the task at hand which enhances students MT 

according to Mills and Fullagar (2008). VR-based biology classes are thought to be 

autotelic for the fun it provides to the learner. It is a hope for out-of-school experiences 

within the school where students can discover, collaborate and contribute within a safe 



  

26 

and convenient environment. VR outperforms interactive screens and computers by 

giving each student a sufficient opportunity to engage, explore and discover freely while 

fully immersed and enhances retention and understanding of difficult concepts. VRI has 

an impact on students’ motivation and therefore, affects their SR as an outcome and as a 

predictor for critical and creative thinking.  

Although recent research highlights VRI as a promising educational tool for enhancing 

immersion, engagement, and motivation, its impact on learners' higher order thinking 

skills remains underexplored. Further investigation is needed to understand how these 

cognitive changes translate into improved learning outcomes across different subjects. 

The qualitative part of the study explains how HoM can be developed by employing VR 

as a method of teaching.  It aims to shed light on its usefulness and effectiveness in 

shaping and improving students’ HoM which might help educators interpret and 

understand the improved outcomes and encourage more students to confidently follow 

the scientific stream.  

1.4 Research Objective and Questions  

The objective of the research is to examine the impact of virtual reality immersion in 

Biology classes, on East Jerusalem High school students’ habits of mind mediated by 

motivation, flow experience and self-regulation.  

Based on the above, the following research questions have been formulated:  

RQ1: Are there statistically significant direct effects of VRI as a method of teaching 

biology on students’ HoM? 

RQ2: Are there statistically significant indirect effects of VRI as a method of teaching 

biology on students’ HoM through the mediation of FE, MT and SR? 

RQ3: How do students perceive the role of mediators FE, MT, and SR in developing 

their HoM through VRI-based biology classes? 

RQ4: How do students perceive the overall impact of VRI-based biology classes on their 

HoM? 



  

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1.5 Significance of the study  

The significance of the study lies in its explanation of the potential benefits of VRI 

method of teaching and learning on high school students’ biology education and its 

effects on shaping their HoM. The study contributes to the underexplored research of 

VRI in the field of education while the technology is becoming more advanced and 

widespread as a tool for improving educational outcomes. Through examining the effects 

of VRI on the cognitive and affective processes of the learner during biology lessons, 

educators might be enlightened on when and how to employ the tool to gain maximum 

benefits and how to affect students HoM to meet the requirements of the age.  

Explaining the way VRI affects students’ HoM during biology classes provides insights 

to biology teachers for innovative approaches when challenged by scientific complex 

concepts. Moreover, other educators can get insights about the cognitive and 

metacognitive benefits of immersion in education in general. As a result, a strategy for 

enhancing the needed 21st century skills (HoM) is provided with informed use.  

In addition, expected practical implications of this study could affect strategies for 

teaching and learning biology, curriculum design, policy making, and might be extended 

on other school subjects to improve students’ comprehension and achievement through 

the enhancement of students HoM. This might help create students with enhanced HoM 

and increase the pool of candidates for science and technology programs.  

To conclude, VRI as a promising educational tool that provides immersion, engagement, 

motivation, and potentially results in enhanced learners’ outcomes, emerge as key 

solution to many educational problems such as improving enrollment in the scientific 

stream, one of the major concerns of the Ministry of Education, the State of Palestine 

(2022). 

1.6 Study Hypotheses  

My initial proposed SEM: Virtual Reality Immersion impact on Habits of Mind (Self-

regulation, Critical Thinking and Creative Thinking) mediated by flow experience, 

motivation, and self-regulation was hypothesized based on different theoretical 

frameworks and empirical studies. VRI as the independent variable of the current study, 

grounded in theories of immersive learning such CAMIL which adopts a constructivist 



  

28 

view of learning by emphasizing the central role of immersion and engagement during 

VRI instruction. The mediating variables: FE which was included as a mediator between 

VRI and HoM and between VRI and MT based on Mirvis and Csikszentmihalyi (1991) 

and Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi (2001) theory of flow. FE emphasizes that 

immersed learners enjoyably fall in complete absorption in what they are performing, a 

state derived from enjoyment and engagement. The second mediating variable MT 

resulting from autotelic nature of performance which generates the state of flow 

according to Csikszentmihalyi (2000), explained how VRI and flow add to the levels of 

MT according to Deci and Ryan (1985). The dual role of SR as the final sequential 

mediator and part of HoM variables is a key variable in the study. HoM encompassing 

(SR, CRIT, and CRET) as the dependent variables of the study were grounded in 

Marzano et al. (1993) most important five life-long dimensions of learning.  

Locke (1987) in his Social Cognitive Theory explained how SR functions as a mediator 

between the components in triadic reciprocal causation model: personal factors, 

behavioral patterns and environmental influences. This enhances the ability for SR to 

function as a sequential mediator between VRI and HoM. Many recent studies such as, 

(Ghanizadeh & Mizaee, 2012; Ghbari & Harahsheh, 2024; Ivcevic et al., 2024; S. Lee, 

2009; Lin et al., 2024) found that SR functions as a precursor, indicator, or a mediator 

for CRIT and CRET.  

The following figure depicts the conceptual model for the proposed relationships 

between the independent variable VRI and the dependent variable HoM mediated by 

flow experience, motivation and self-regulation:  

  



  

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Figure 1 

A proposed conceptual model 

 

Based on Figure 1, research hypotheses about the relationships between VRI and 

enhanced HoM and the mediating roles of FE, MT and SR are: 

1.6.1 Direct effects 

There are 14 direct effects in the relationship between VRI and HoM when including 

mediators:  

1.6.1.1 Direct Effects Hypotheses 

H1a: Higher levels of VRI enhance CRIT. 

H1b: Higher levels of VRI enhance SR.  

H1c: Higher levels of VRI enhance CRET.  

H1d: Higher levels of VRI enhance FE.  

H1e: Higher levels of VRI enhance MT. 

H2: FE directly enhances MT. 

H3a: FE directly enhances CRIT 

H3b: FE directly enhances SR. 

H3c: FE directly enhances CRET. 

H4a: MT directly enhances CRIT 

H4b: MT directly enhances SR. 



  

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H4c: MT directly enhances CRET. 

H5a: SR directly enhances CRIT. 

H5b: SR directly enhances CRET. 

1.6.2 Indirect Effect Hypotheses 

There are three types of indirect hypotheses based on the number of mediators included 

in the relationships:   

1. Primary mediation: include only one mediator. 

2. Secondary mediation: include two mediators. 

3. Tertiary mediation: include three mediators. 

1.6.2.1 Primary Mediation Hypotheses 

There are 14 primary-mediation hypotheses that include one mediator: 

Primary Mediation Hypotheses (One Mediator) 

H6:   The relationship between VRI and SR is partially mediated by FE.  

H7:   The relationship between VRI and CRIT is partially mediated by FE 

H8:   The relationship between VRI and CRET is partially mediated by FE. 

H9:   The relationship between VRI and SR is partially mediated by MT. 

H10: The relationship between VRI and CRIT is partially mediated by MT. 

H11: The relationship between VRI and CRET is partially mediated by MT. 

H12: The relationship between VRI and CRIT is partially mediated by SR. 

H13: The relationship between VRI and CRET is partially mediated by SR.   

H14: The relationship between VRI and MT is partially mediated by FE. 

H15: The relationship between FE and SR is partially mediated by MT. 

H16: The relationship between FE and CRIT is partially mediated by MT. 

H17: The relationship between FE and CRET is partially mediated by MT. 

H18: The relationship between MT and CRIT is partially mediated by SR. 

H19: The relationship between MT and CRET is partially mediated by SR. 

  



  

31 

1.6.2.2 Secondary-Mediation Hypotheses (two mediators) 

There are 7 secondary-mediation hypotheses that include two mediators: 

Secondary-Mediation Hypotheses (Two Mediator) 

H20: VRI enhances CRIT through FE and MT. 

H21: VRI enhances CRET through FE and MT. 

H22: VRI enhances CRIT through MT and SR. 

H23: VRI enhances CRET through MT and SR. 

H24: VRI enhances SR through FE and MT. 

H25: FE enhances CRIT through MT and SR. 

H26: FE enhances CRET through MT and SR. 

1.6.2.3 Tertiary-Mediation (Three mediators) 

There are two cases of tertiary mediation:  

Tertiary Mediation Hypotheses (Three Mediator) 

H27: VRI enhances CRIT through FE, MT, and SR. 

H28: VRI enhances CRET through FE, MT, and SR. 

 

  



  

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Chapter Two 

Methodology 

2.1 Research Design  

This descriptive explanatory study is a mixed methods design to allow for the explanation 

of the goals of the study, and the exact nature of the relationships in the SEM that causes 

VRI to enhance students' HoM through FE, MT and SR during biology classes. This 

integration of quantitative data with qualitative insights helps address both the 

measurable effects and the underlying experiences and perceptions of the students about 

VRI and achieve methodological triangulation. Triangulation enables a rich 

understanding of the phenomenon under study by examining it from different angles. 

The validity and reliability of the findings were also achieved through employing data 

source triangulation which involved combining data from semi-structured interviews 

with participating students and common insights from focus groups, and classroom 

observations. Data source triangulation was achieved by gathering perspectives from 

students to understand the impact of VRI on HoM comprehensively.  

For the quantitative part, a comprehensive questionnaire used a Likert scale with five 

answer choices. For the qualitative part, data was gathered through different methods: 

Classroom observations during application were followed by focus group sessions to 

allow for immediate data and shared perceptions while the experience is still fresh in the 

students’ minds. Later, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 representative 

students from the different participating groups until saturation was achieved. The 

deductive approach was followed based on Marzano et al. (1993)’s rubrics for HoM 

standards for the fifth and most important dimension for learning, namely ‘Productive 

HoM’. VRI was based on Schubert et al. (2001) validated Igroup Presence Questionnaire 

– Short (IPQ-S). Finally, the mediating variables, (FE and MT) were based on the tool 

validated by Guerra-Tamez (2023).  

2.2 Research Context 

The experiment was exclusively conducted on East Jerusalem government High School 

Students (10th – 12th graders) based on random cluster sampling. The choice of 

secondary school students was based on the belief that students during this age (15 – 18) 



  

33 

still have more flexibility to change their HoM than during later ages when cognitive 

characteristics are more fossilized and harder to change.  

During high school, teens show an increasing ability to reason and sort facts from fiction. 

They start thinking abstractly and manipulate hypothetical situations. They become able 

to set their future goals and take other opinions into consideration while making their 

own decisions. They understand the future consequences of their present actions and 

have a clear sense of what is right and what is wrong. They can write with complexity 

about a variety of content areas in science, social studies and literature. They can employ 

strategies to search for, use and compare information from multiple sources (Assari, 

2020). Moreover, Cottrell (2013) believes that the transformational experience of 

studying in Higher Education can be life changing. Most graduates look back on this time 

with great fondness. In part, this is because of the unique opportunities it offers such as 

feeling intellectually stretched, exploration of new ideas, and engaging in a wide range 

of new activities which cannot be easily obtained elsewhere.  

East Jerusalem government high schools adopt either the Palestinian curriculum (tawjihi) 

where schools are usually separated based on gender (either male or female) and include 

three stages: 10th to 12th grades. Schools adopting the Israeli curriculum (Bagrut), on 

the other hand, are usually mixed and include four stages: 9th – 12th grades. 

Nevertheless, coursebooks of both types of schools present the same biology content with 

little variations. This study aims for the schools adopting the Palestinian curriculum; 

therefore, a random multistage cluster sampling method was used to recruit participants 

for this study. First, three secondary schools were randomly selected from a total of 7 

schools that implemented the Tawjihi curriculum. These schools represented primary 

clusters in the sampling process. In the second stage, students were selected from grades 

10, 11, and 12 within each school. In schools with a large student population, participants 

were selected using simple random sampling from each grade level. However, in schools 

with smaller enrollment numbers, all students from the relevant grades were included to 

ensure adequate representation.  

  



  

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2.3 Ethical Approval 

This study was conducted in compliance with ethical research guidelines. Ethical 

approval was obtained from An-Najah National University Institutional Review Board 

(IRB) before data collection. The approval was granted under reference number [IRB: 

Fgs/Hum. Feb. 2025/70] (Appendix C). All participants provided informed consent 

before participating in the study, ensuring voluntary participation, anonymity, and 

confidentiality. 

2.4 Quantitative Methods  

2.4.1 Study Sample  

Due to the novelty of VR as an educational tool, and the limited availability of VR-

furnished digital labs in East Jerusalem high schools; lack of technical support; trained 

schoolteachers and convenient access to cites which provide relevant 3D lessons, an 

initial agreement with the sample’s school principals and biology teachers to involve in 

a short training session about VR basics and implementation was achieved. Teachers of 

the sample showed willingness to learn and apply the experiment.  

Participating teachers and students were separately given an orientation session to 

familiarize them with VR as an educational tool. Then VRI classes were applied on 

students during formal biology classes. Specific topics for each grade level were agreed 

on by the participating teachers to be covered during the first semester of the scholastic 

year 2024 / 2025.   

The sample included 349 students taught by 4 biology teachers from 3 different high 

schools (2 male and 1 female school) from East Jerusalem Municipality high schools 

were randomly chosen by the computer for the experiment. Biology teachers (2 male and 

2 female) of the sample were all highly qualified with a BA degree in Biology and an 

MA degree in methods of teaching science and an experience of more than ten years of 

teaching biology for high school students. Table A1 (Appendix A) shows the 

demographic information of the quantitative sample.  

VR biology classes were planned according to the principles of constructivism (Fadli et 

al., 2024; Kurt & Sezek, 2021). This is believed to enhance HoM, especially SR, CRIT 

and CRET (Angraini et al., 2024; Kurt & Sezek, 2021; Mvududu & Thiel-Burgess, 2012; 



  

35 

Pande & Bharathi, 2020, 2020; Sengul, 2024; Stigall & Sharma, 2017; Vijayakumar 

Bharathi & Pande, 2024). Roughly speaking, each of the VR sessions had almost the 

same plan with little variation depending on the topic, its complexity and the length of 

the interactive or explanatory videos or scenes.  

For every VRI-based biology lesson, three to five Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) 

were given to students in advance. Each ILO states what learners will discover on their 

own competently.  Activities, VR scenes and assessments were then selected or designed 

to align with these outcomes (Biggs & Tang, 2011). A general framework for planning 

VR-based biology lessons that wa