An-Najah National University Faculty of Graduate Studies Techno – Economic Analysis of Implementation Energy Management Resources in Some Factories in West Bank By Anas Omar Nassorah Supervisor Dr. Imad Ibrik This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Program Engineering in Clean Energy and Conservation Strategy, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An- Najah National University, Nablus – Palestine. 2016 iii Dedication To my father To my mother To my brothers and sister To my teachers To my friends To my colleagues I dedicate this work iv Acknowledgment The first thing is to thank Allah for helping me to accomplish this work and make it easier to me. Special thanks to the supervisor of my thesis Dr. Imad Ibrik for his instructions and supporting me in my thesis and to the teachers of the Master of Clean Energy Engineering and Energy Conservations for their efforts. I would like to thank Golden Wheat Mills Company and National Beverages Company and National Aluminum and Profile Company for their information and data. Also special thanks to my family for helping and encouraging me to complete this work Thank you to my friends and colleagues. Thank you to everyone share to accomplish this work. vi Table of Contents No. Content Page Dedication iii Acknowledgment iv Declaration v List of tables x List of figures xii List of equations xiv List of appendices xv Abbreviations xviii Abstract xvi Introduction 1 Chapter One: Energy in West Bank and energy use in industrial sector 8 1.1 Energy situation in West Bank 8 1.2 Economical activities in general in West Bank 9 1.3 Implementation of solar systems in Palestine 15 1.3.1 Energy strategy by 2020 in Palestine 16 1.3.2 Solar energy projects in Palestine 17 Chapter Two: Energy management and energy conservation measures in industrial sector 18 Introduction 18 Measures could be studied in industrial sector 21 2.1 Energy conservation opportunity in electrical motors 21 2.1.1 Power losses and efficiency of motors 22 2.1.2 Energy conservation methods in motors 24 2.2 Lighting systems 26 2.2.1 Lighting efficiency and lighting basics 27 2.2.2 Light sources 29 2.2.3 Ways and techniques to energy conservation in lighting systems 30 2.2.3.1 Electronic ballasts 30 2.2.3.2 Applying lumen method 31 2.3 Power factor 31 2.3.1 Methods to improve power factor 32 2.3.2 Impacts of low power factor in industrial sector and electrical network 33 2.4 Energy management techniques 34 2.4.1 Time of day billing 34 2.4.2 Load management 34 vii 2.5 Compressed air system 35 2.5.1 Ways to improve efficiency of compressed air system 36 2.5.2.1 Using outside intake air 36 2.6 Waste heat recovery 37 2.7 Utilizing solar energy 38 2.7.1 Solar thermal and SWH 40 2.7.1.1 Optimum design of SWH in Palestine 41 2.7.2 PV systems technology 41 2.7.2.1 PV – on grid systems 43 2.7.2.1.1 Elements of on – grid PV systems 44 2.7.2.1.2 Design of on – grid PV systems 44 Chapter Three: Energy audit in different facilities in West Bank 46 3.1 Energy audit in Golden wheat mills company (GWMC) 46 3.1.1 About the company 46 3.1.2 Energy measures opportunities in GWMC company 48 3.1.2.1 Power transformers 48 3.1.2.2 Energy conservation in the motors in the company 53 3.1.2.3 Energy conservation in the Lighting systems in the company 57 3.1.2.4 Analysis of compressed air system in the company 62 3.1.2.5 Analysis of utilizing solar energy in GWMC company 65 3.1.2.5.1 Solar thermal energy and SWH in GWMC company 65 3.1.2.5.2 Analysis of utilizing on – grid PV system in GWMC company 67 3.2 Energy audit in national beverages company (NBC) 70 3.2.1 About the company 70 3.2.2 Energy management opportunities in NBC company 71 3.2.2.1 Power transformers 71 3.2.2.2 Energy conservation in the motors in the company 75 3.2.2.3 Energy conservation in the Lighting systems in the company 77 3.2.2.4 Analysis of compressed air system in the company 79 3.2.2.5 Analysis of utilizing solar energy in NBC company 81 viii 3.3 Energy audit in national aluminum and profile company (NAPCO) 83 3.3.1 About the company 83 3.3.2 Energy measures opportunities in NAPCO company 84 3.3.2.1 Power transformers in NAPCO 84 3.3.2.2 Energy conservation in the motors in the company 86 3.3.2.3 LPG burners and recovering waste heat from them in the company 88 3.3.2.4 Analysis of utilizing solar energy in NAPCO company 92 3.3.2.4.1 Solar thermal energy and SWH in NAPCO company 93 3.3.2.4.2 Analysis of utilizing on – grid PV system in NAPCO company 94 Chapter Four: Economical evaluation of energy conservation measures 97 4.1 Engineering economy and economical evaluation 97 4.2 Economical evaluation of E.C.Ms in GWMC company 99 4.2.1 Economical evaluation of changing tariff system from low tension tariff to high tension tariff 99 4.2.2 Economical evaluation of energy conservation in motors 100 4.2.3 Economical evaluation of energy conservation in lighting systems 101 4.2.4 Economical evaluation of using outside air in compressed air system 103 4.2.5 Economical evaluation of using SWH system 103 4.2.6 Economical evaluation of utilizing on – grid PV system 104 4.3 Economical evaluation of E.C.Ms in NBC company 107 4.3.1 Economical evaluation of energy conservation in motors 107 4.3.2 Economical evaluation of energy conservation in lighting systems 108 4.3.3 Economical evaluation of using outside air in compressed air system 109 4.3.4 Economical evaluation of utilizing on – grid PV system 109 4.4 Economical evaluation of E.C.Ms in NAPCO 111 ix company 4.4.1 Economical evaluation of energy conservation in motors 111 4.4.2 Economical evaluation of recovering waste heat from LPG burners 112 4.4.3 Economical evaluation of using SWH instead of conventional heating boiler 112 4.4.4 Economical evaluation of utilizing on – grid PV system 112 Chapter Five: Environmental and overall impacts of energy conservation measures in industrial sector in West Bank 115 5.1 Environmental impact of E.C.Ms in GWMC company 116 5.2 Environmental impact of E.C.Ms in NBC company 116 5.3 Environmental impact of E.C.Ms in NAPCO company 116 5.4 The impact of using E.C.Ms in industrial sector in West Bank 117 5.4.1 The overall impact of E.C.Ms and PV – on grid system in the specified cases 117 5.4.2 The estimated impact of using E.C.Ms in industrial sector in West Bank 121 Conclusions 122 Recommendations 124 References 126 Appendices 130 لملخصا ب x List of Tables No. Table Page 1.1 Importation of energy in West Bank in 2012 8 1.2 purchased electrical energy (MWH) in West Bank in 2012 8 1.3 Economical activities according to number of enterprises and output (in USD 1000) 10 1.4 Economical activities according to needed production input 11 1.5 Fuel and oil needs and its percentage to the total production inputs for different activities 13 1.6 Consumption of electricity for different activities 14 1.7 Expected power from renewable energy in 2020 from determined technologies 16 2.1 Power factor penalties in Palestine 34 2.2 Annual energy and cost savings with reduced compressor inlet temperature 37 2.3 The use of renewable energy in industrial sector 40 2.4 Development of PV technology between 1995 and 2005 42 3.1 Load factor for transformers 53 3.2 Load factor for the utility panels 53 3.3 Motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from using inverters 55 3.4 Motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from replacing motors by efficient motors 56 3.5 Lighting types and yearly consumption of electricity in the company 59 3.6 Yearly saving in electrical energy in fluorescent lamps after using electronic ballasts 62 3.7 Yearly saving in electrical energy in compressed air system 64 3.8 Overall yearly saving in electrical energy (GWMC) 64 3.9 Yearly consumption of hot water boilers 65 3.10 Yearly saved electrical energy after installing SWH 67 3.11 The overall saving from utilizing solar energy (GWMC) 70 3.12 Load factor for transformers 72 3.13 Load factor for utility panels 72 3.14 Motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from replacing motors by efficient motors 76 xi 3.15 Lighting types and yearly consumption of electricity in NBC 78 3.16 Yearly saving in electrical energy from using electronic ballasts in fluorescent lamps 79 3.17 Yearly saving in electrical energy in compressed air system (NBC) 80 3.18 Overall yearly saving in electrical energy (NBC) 81 3.19 Motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from using inverters 87 3.20 Motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from replacing motors by efficient motors 87 3.21 Burners monthly consumption of fuel and type of fuel 89 3.22 Flue gases quantities 90 3.23 Amount of reduced fuel consumption 91 3.24 Overall yearly saving in electrical energy (NAPCO) 92 3.25 Yearly saving in LPG consumption (NAPCO) 92 3.26 The overall saving from utilizing solar energy (NAPCO) 96 4.1 Yearly saving in motors (NIS/year) [GWMC] 100 4.2 Yearly saving in lighting systems (NIS/year) [GWMC] 102 4.3 Yearly saving from using SWH (NIS/year) [GWMC] 103 4.4 Yearly saving in motors (NIS/year) [NBC] 107 4.5 Yearly saving in lighting systems (NIS/year) [NBC] 108 4.6 Yearly saving in motors (NIS/year) [NAPCO] 111 4.7 Yearly saving in the cost of LPG from recovering waste heat from LPG burners (NIS/year) [NAPCO] 112 5.1 Price of energy generation and CO2 emissions for each type of energy generation 115 5.2 Overall electricity consumption and saving technically, economically and environmentally 118 5.3 Overall LPG consumption and saving technically, economically and environmentally 118 5.4 Overall analysis of utilizing PV – on grid system technically, economically and environmentally 119 xii List of Figures No. Table Page 1.1 Percentage of purchased electrical energy according to source 9 1.2 Percentage of economical activities according to number of enterprises 10 1.3 Percentage of the outputs from different activities 11 1.4 Percentage of needed production inputs for different activities 12 1.5 Percentage of needs of fuel and oil for different activities 13 1.6 Percentage of electricity consumption for different activities 14 1.7 Average solar energy through the year 15 2.1 Percentage of various energy sources to world primary energy consumption in 2002 19 2.2 World production of oil and gas 19 2.3 Power flow diagram for an induction motor 23 2.4 Power stages in induction motors 24 2.5 Schematic of inverter 25 2.6 Schematic of electronic ballasts 31 2.7 Power losses as a function of p.f 33 2.8 Voltage drop as a function of p.f 33 2.9 Compressor costs over a ten years lifecycle 35 2.10 Compressed air usage and potential savings for the typical compressed air use 36 2.11 Global industrial sector energy consumption during 2006-2030 39 2.12 PV – on grid system 44 3.1 Monthly consumption of electrical energy (GWMC) 48 3.2 Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer1, GWMC) 48 3.3 Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 1, GWMC) 49 3.4 Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 1, GWMC) 49 3.5 Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 2, GWMC) 49 3.6 Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 2, GWMC) 50 xiii 3.7 Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 2, GWMC) 50 3.8 Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 3, GWMC) 50 3.9 Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 3, GWMC) 51 3.10 Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 3, GWMC) 51 3.11 Time Vs. apparent power (enhanced reading, transformer 1, GWMC) 52 3.12 Time Vs. apparent power (enhanced reading, transformer 3, GWMC) 52 3.13 PV – on grid diagram in GWMC 69 3.14 Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 1, NBC) 72 3.15 Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 1, NBC) 72 3.16 Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 1, NBC) 72 3.17 Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 2, NBC) 73 3.18 Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 2, NBC) 73 3.19 Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 2, NBC) 73 3.20 PV – on grid diagram in NBC 83 3.21 Time Vs. apparent power curve (NAPCO) 85 3.22 Time Vs. three phase currents curve (NAPCO) 85 3.23 Time Vs. power factor curve (NAPCO) 85 3.24 PV – on grid diagram in NAPCO 96 4.1 Cash flow of E.C.Ms evaluation in GWMC 106 4.2 Cash flow of E.C.Ms evaluation in NBC 110 4.3 Cash flow of E.C.Ms evaluation in NAPCO 114 xiv List of Equations No. Equation Page 2.1 Power rating of motors 21 2.2 Efficiency of the motors 23 2.3 Lumen method for lighting 28 2.4 Three phase active power calculation 32 2.5 Single phase active power calculation 34 2.6 Load factor calculation 41 2.7 Thermal energy required for heating in SWH 41 2.8 Area of SWH 45 2.9 Energy generated from PV modules 45 2.10 PV peak power 45 2.11 Number of series PV modules 45 2.12 Number of PV strings 45 3.1 Difference in power after replacing motors by efficient types 57 3.2 Combustion equation of LPG 89 3.3 Thermal energy of flue gases 90 4.1 Simple payback period 97 4.2 Present value if annual given 98 4.3 Annual value if present given 98 4.4 Net metering tariff equation 104 xv List of Appendices No. Appendices Page Appendix (A) Energy analyzer data for GWMC transformers 1,2 and 3 130 Appendix (B) Energy analyzer data for NBC transformers 1 and 2 133 Appendix (C) Energy analyzer data for NAPCO 135 Appendix (D) Tariff of JDECO 136 Appendix (E) Tariff of IEC 137 Appendix (F) High efficient motors data table 138 Appendix (G) Data sheet of solar cells 139 Appendix (H) Data sheet of on grid inverters 141 Appendix (I) Table of interest 10% 147 Appendix (J) Transformers’ properties in GWMC 148 xvi Abbreviations IEC Israeli Electric Corporation JDECO Jerusalem District Electricity Company LPG liquefied petroleum gas GHG Greenhouse gases HID High Intensity Discharge Lm lumen p.f Power Factor L.F Load Factor H.P Horse Power VSD Variable Speed Drive IGBT Insulated – gate Bipolar Transistor PWM Pulse Width Modulation CFL Compacted Fluorescent Lamp HPS High Pressure Sodium LED Light emitting diode FL Fluorescent INC Incandescent MH Metal Halide HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning GWMC Golden Wheat Mills Company NBC National Beverages Company NAPCO National Aluminum and Profile Company SWH Solar Water Heater SCADA Supervisory Control and data acquisition xvii PLC programmable logic control LCD Liquid crystal display PEA Palestinian Energy Authority kWp Kilowatt peak GWp Gigawatt peak S.P.B.P Simple Payback period AW Annual Worth ESCO Energy Service Company E.C.Ms Energy Conservation Measures Values: Heat value of LPG = 9500 Kcal/Kg 1 kWh = 860 kcal 1 USD dollars = 3.8 NIS Heat value of LPG = 9500 Kcal/Kg Price of LPG = 5.8 NIS/Kg xviii Techno – Economic analysis of implementation energy management resources in some Factories in West Bank By Anas Omar Nassorah Supervisor Dr. Imad Ibrik Abstract Energy issues are considered one of the important subjects that pay the attention of researchers and this is due to increasing cost of conventional energy as well as the corresponding environmental impacts. The industrial sector represents a significant branch of energy consumption all over the world especially in the industrialized countries. The energy demand in industrial sector in Palestine increases with acceptable rate and in the same time mostly all the energy resources are imported from the Israeli side. To mitigate this problem a further utilization of renewable energy and energy management should be considered. The percentage of electricity consumption in industrial sector is 37% to other sectors and the percentage of fuel and oil consumption is 42%. This thesis studies the possibility of implementation energy efficiency opportunities to three industries in Palestine in order to efficiently contribute in solving the problems in energy in West Bank. The Golden Wheat Mills Company (GWMC), National Beverages Company (NBC) and National Aluminum and Profile Company (NAPCO) are taken as samples to assess the available energy efficiency opportunities especially those companies are considered large according to Palestinian classification. xix The studied energy efficiency opportunities includes the analyzing of tariff system, load factor, power factor, lighting system, motors, compressed air systems and LPG burners. The achieved saving in energy are ranging from 15.7% to 18.7%. On the other hand a grid-connected PV system is suggested which saves 10% of electrical energy by applying net metering system. The annual saving in electrical energy is 1.37 MWh and 104 ton LPG which reduces the operating cost to about 2.5 million NIS at simple payback period ranges from 2.42 to 4.45 years. The annual reduced amounts of CO2 emissions are 450.47 ton, 888.21 ton and 948.85 ton in GWMC, NBC and NAPCO, respectively. 1  Introduction: Palestine suffers from lack of energy sources and imports the energy from many countries depending mainly on importation from Israel, which in turn leads to unsecure and unsafe energy resources use and the prices of energy is high in the comparison to other countries in area. On the other hand the generation of energy is very limited especially after the war on Gaza in 2014 where the generation plants has been destroyed which increases the problem of the electrical energy shortage in Gaza strip. In Palestine there is large number of connection points and that leads to large losses. Also the inefficient use of energy in general leads to increase the problem and the consumption of energy becomes higher with no need. One of the solutions to solve this problem in electrical energy is utilizing solar energy to generate electricity by PV technology or to heat water by SWH in homes and institutions; especially Palestine has good potential of solar energy 5.4 kWh/m2-day, so this solution is feasible. Another solution is energy conservation and applies energy conservation measures to use the energy efficiently. The percentage of industrial sector consumption in electrical energy to the total consumption in Palestine is 36.37 % with a value of 63,692,700 USD and the percentage of fuel and oil consumption is 40.69% with a value of 148,057,300 USD. [9] 2 This thesis focuses on the importance of energy conservation measures in industrial sector and to the feasibility of using solar energy, as well. The main idea of this work is to apply the energy conservation opportunities to reduce energy consumption based on energy audits to many facilities in West Bank as shown below. Energy conservation also has a good and big impact in air pollution due to reduction of GHG especially CO2 gas. The objectives of this thesis are: 1- Analysis the energy situation in Palestine and West Bank especially in industrial sector. 2- Determine the amount of saving in energy could be gained from energy conservation and after energy audit in many facilities in West Bank. 3- Encourage to install renewable energy systems. 4- Reduce the operation cost of the systems in these companies. 5- Reduce the harmful emissions in the environment. The structure of the thesis is: Chapter one: Energy situation in West Bank. It’s important to talk about the energy situation in West Bank and energy resources also the economical activities established in West Bank 3 Chapter two: energy management and energy conservation measures in industrial sector. This chapter comprises the studied measures in industrial sector and the techniques used to apply energy conservation and utilizing solar energy. Chapter three: Energy audit in different facilities in West Bank. This chapter contains the facilities chosen to make energy audit on them Chapter four: Economical evaluation of energy conservation. It is important to evaluate the energy conservation measures and solar energy utilizing economically to take economical impression of that. Chapter five: environmental impacts of energy conservation and solar energy use in industrial sector in West Bank. This chapter contains the environmental impact of energy conservation measures and how these measures of energy conservation and solar energy reduce the harmful emissions especially CO2 gas. 4  Literature Review: Basher Da’as, (2008), said that energy saving proved that are around 10- 25% by implementing some energy conservation measures (no and low cost investment) and that can be applied in many sectors such as: boilers, oxygen, generating units, air conditioning, lighting systems and solar water heaters. The efficient use of energy and energy management in Palestine is not in better condition than most developing countries so we need to apply energy management in Palestine. [1] Mohammad kaleel, (2008), mentioned that the energy situation in Palestine and efficient use of energy and the energy conservation in universities are not in a better situation than the most developing countries. So we need to use energy in efficient way where we need to make energy audit in some faculties in the university. it was proven that there is a huge potential for energy saving in Palestinian universities sector where that around 15-20% by implementing some energy conservation measures on the most energy consumption equipment such as: boilers, air conditioning and lighting systems. In this thesis he developed new energy management software, which is used to estimate the total energy saving from each opportunity. [2] 5 Ahmad tartit, (2010), He said that the supply of conventional energy electricity and petroleum products is monopolized by Israel. So it’s important to apply energy management in our country in commercial sector. He proved that there is a big saving opportunity in energy like lighting, UPS, rectifiers, air conditioning systems and power where the amount of saving was around 15%. [3] Basil Yaseen, (2008), the developing countries were working in industrial energy since 1973 to improve the efficient use of energy where they reached to good amount of saving. So he tried to find energy conservation opportunity through conducting energy analysis of industrial consumption in Palestine and through audits in some industries in Palestine. The saving in electric energy was around 277800 kWh and fuel saving is around 66000liter/year. On the national level 10-20% saving from the total energy consumption in the industrial sector could be achieved by implementing some energy conservation measures like boilers, compressors, lighting systems and low power factor. [4] Greuville J. Croll, (1980), Computers and allied technologies can be used to increase energy efficiency. 6 In UK 40% of the energy is in industrial sector. The computer has a fairly well defined role in industrial energy conservation at the design stage; computers may be used to simulate the likely operational characteristics of several preliminary designs. Before installation of energy management it is necessary to perform an energy Audit to ensure that the proposed system is justified on a cost basis alone, since that is the only acceptable method of assessing a systems worth. Measure and tools are boilers, turbine generators lines, pipes transformers, process equipment and demand control. Computer technology is increasingly being used to help perform these functions more efficiently, electricity supply networks are invariably large and several computers will be used, typically in some form of structured control hierarchy. The use of the computer in electricity supply management brings about certain improvements in overall system efficiency and reduces the probability of total network failure such as happened in New York 1965. Tyler estimates that improving the efficiency of electricity supply and distribution from 25% to 30% will bring about 5% reductions in UK primary energy consumption. [5] 7 Siemens, (2011), It’s important to use the energy in efficient way to reduce the cost and CO2 emissions on the other hand the world’s population is growing fast and that leads to increase the use of the energy year by year. There are many forms of energy and energy management. Also, mentioned the standard components for energy efficiency, energy management and the control process of that to apply that in many fields like heating, motors, stabilized power supplies and energy efficient pneumatic positioner's. How computers can help us to conserve energy, information and communication technology play a critical role in supporting the necessary paradigm shifts within the energy sector towards a more sustainable generation of electricity. [6] 8 Chapter One Energy in West Bank and energy use in industrial sector 1.1 Energy situation in West Bank: As mentioned in the introduction Palestine depends on the importation of energy and the table 1.1 shows the importation of energy according to its form in 2012 in West Bank: Table 1.1: Importation of energy in West Bank in 2012 [7, 8]. Electricity (MWh) Gasoline (1000 L) Diesel (1000 L) Kerosene (1000 L) LPG (Ton) Tar (Ton) Oil and Grease (Ton) Wood (Ton) 3659623 193140 413847 1722 95113 5436 1755 24726 Table 1.2 shows the purchased electrical energy (MWh) in West Bank in 2012 according to month and source: Table 1.2: Purchased electrical energy (MWh) in West Bank in 2012 [7]. Month IEC Jordan Total January 395517 7054 402571 February 363706 6489 370195 March 339140 5921 345061 April 234512 7663 242175 May 240013 10016 250029 June 257615 10715 268330 July 295019 9707 304726 August 294471 9601 304072 September 266950 8790 275740 October 261521 3178 264699 November 275085 1115 276200 December 353752 2073 355825 Total (MWh) 3577301 82322 3659623 9 Clearly the purchased electrical energy from IEC is larger than Jordan and that shown in the following pie chart Figure 1.1: Fig 1.1: Percentage of purchased electrical energy according to source [7] 1.2 Economical activities in general in West Bank: In West Bank there are many economical activities and each activity has its own specification and category. we can easily concentrate the studies in the industrial activities and on related data which reflects the energy situation in West Bank especially for industrial activities, where the economical activities categorized to Industrial activities, Construction activities, Internal trade activities, Transport and storage activities, Information and communications activities and Services activities and each activity has important data like: Number of Enterprises, output, production input, fuel and oil, Electricity and energy use , Table 1.3 shows the economical activities according to number of enterprises and output (in USD 1000) 10 Table 1.3: Economical activities according to number of enterprises and output (in USD 1000) [9] Activities No. of Enterprises output (value in USD 1000) Industrial activities 11666 3133808.4 Construction activities 392 452507.7 Internal trade activities 46730 2260312.2 Transport and storage activities 628 146612.2 Information and communications activities 452 724424.9 Services activities 22861 1447742.5 Total 82729 8165407.9 Figure 1.2 shows the percentage of economical activities according to number of enterprises: Fig 1.2: Percentage of economical activities according to number of enterprises [9] 11 Figure 1.3 shows the percentage of the outputs from different activities: Fig 1.3: Percentage of the outputs from different activities [9] As shown above there are 11666 enterprises related to industrial activities with a percentage of 14% and the output (value in USD 1000) is 3133808.4 with a percentage of 38%. Economical activities according to needed production input in general and according to fuel and oil, Electricity and Energy use and the percentage of them to the total production inputs (values in USD 1000) shown in table 1.4: Table 1.4: Economical activities according to needed production input [9] Activities Total (value in USD 1000) Industrial activities 1600344.1 Construction activities 193893.2 Internal trade activities 200724.4 Transport and storage activities 46420.2 Information and communications activities 24839.4 services activities 210284.6 Total 2276505.9 12 Figure 1.4 shows the percentage of needed production inputs for different activities: Fig 1.4: Percentage of needed production inputs for different activities [9] As shown above, the industrial activities has the largest production in comparison to other activities with a value of (value in USD 1000) 1600344.1 and a percentage of 70%. Table 1.5 shows the fuel and oil needs and its percentage to the total production inputs for different activities: 13 Table 1.5: fuel and oil needs and its percentage to the total production inputs for different activities [9] Activities fuel and oil (value in USD 1000) Percentage (%) Industrial Activities 120165.9 7.508753899 Construction Activities 13789.4 7.11185333 Internal trade Activities 67688.2 33.72195906 Transport and storage Activities 41982 90.43907609 Information and communications Activities 7602.6 30.60701949 services Activities 36753 17.47774207 Total 287981.1 12.2 Figure 1.5 shows the percentage of demands of fuel and oil for different activities: Fig 1.5: Percentage of needs of fuel and oil for different activities [9] As shown in table 1.5 and figure 1.5, the use of fuel and oil in industrial activities has the largest value in comparison of other activities with a value of 120165.9 (value in USD 1000) and a percentage of 42%. On the other hand the percentage of fuel and oil to the total production inputs in 14 industrial activities is 7.5%. Table 1.6 shows the consumption of electricity for different activities: Table 1.6: consumption of electricity for different activities [9] Figure 1.6 shows the percentage of electricity consumption for different activities: Fig 1.6: percentage of electricity consumption for different activities [9] As shown above in table 1.6 and figure 1.6 the use of electricity in industrial activities has the largest value in the comparison of the other activities with a value of 55432.1 (value in USD 1000) with a percentage of Activities Electricity (value in USD 1000) Percentage (%) Industrial activities 55432.1 3.463761325 Construction activities 805.6 0.415486464 Internal trade activities 46718.8 23.2750976 Transport and storage activities 885.7 1.908005567 Information and communications activities 8964.5 36.08984114 services activities 35349.9 16.81050348 Total 148156.6 6.5 15 37% and the percentage of the electricity use in the comparison of the total production inputs in industrial activities is 3.46%. [9] As illustrated above, the energy use in West Bank not small so, any saving technique applied can lead to large saving values. 1.3 Implementation of solar systems in Palestine: Palestine lies in the east coast to Mediterranean Sea between 34⁰:15`- 35⁰:40`E and 30⁰:29` - 33⁰:15` N. [10] According to Palestine’s location, Palestine receives high solar radiation where the daily average solar radiation is 5.4kWh/m2-d with total average sunshine duration 2850 hours. [11] Average monthly solar energy varying through the year where it is 2.724kWh/m2 -day in December with lowest value and it is 8.19kWh/m2 - day in June with highest value and that shown in details in figure 1.7: Fig 1.7: Average solar energy through the year [12] 16 1.3.1 Energy strategy by 2020 in Palestine: According to energy problems in Palestine, PEA prepared a renewable energy strategy and set goals in 2020 to apply that as the following: Gradually, achieve at least 240 GWh to generate electricity from renewable energy resources with a percentage of 10% from the locally generated electricity in 2020 according to strategy plan in energy sector. The estimation use of thermal renewable resources is 18% from total energy consumption in Palestine with a value of 2287 GWh which used especially in water heating and from that the percentage of renewable energy using is 25% from electrical energy in 2020. According to evaluation studies in renewable energy resources which are done by PEA, suitable choices and technologies determined as shown in table 1.7: Table 1.7: Expected Power from renewable energy in 2020 from determined technologies [13] Used technology Power (MW) Solar cells stations 25 Roof top solar cells 20 CSP stations (thermal) 20 Biogas from landfills 18 Biogas from animal waste 3 Small wind stations 4 Wind farms stations 40 Total 130 17 This strategy is going to be applied in two stages, first stage (2012-2015) for small projects and second stage (2016-2020) for large projects with higher power. [13] 1.3.2 Solar energy projects in Palestine: There are many projects of solar energy established in many cities in Palestine with different scales and techniques, where these projects differ between lighting, electricity production and water pumping systems. Isolated and far areas were the concentrated due to leakage in energy and their far locations from the main cities. In Jabat Dheeb village in Bethlehem lighting poles installed fed by solar energy and store it to 5 days with a power of 500Watt and daily energy 1300Wh, in Al – Bireh the project of lighting the park of children happiness center established with a yearly consumption of 5000 kWh and the project of lighting the industrial area in Jericho with a power of 350 kVA. In Atouf in Tubas solar project installed to feed the village with a power of 12kW and in Dawa area east to Aqrba in Nablus solar system established feed the area with electricity and pump water system through centralized solar system. [14] 18 Chapter Two Energy management and energy conservation measures in industrial sector  Introduction: Industrial sector consumes energy more than other sectors due to the production inputs have a large cost which the energy in one of these inputs. Therefore, it’s necessary to reduce these production inputs cost to achieve larger benefits. Energy consumption can be reduced by many ways like energy management and energy conservation. Globally, industrial sector has an important role in last twenty first century. Thus, it is increased and led to increase in the demand of energy. [15] World annual consumption of energy increased more than ten times through the twentieth century. In year 2002 the total consumption in the world was 451*1018 Joule in forms of energy such as oil, natural gas, coal, traditional biomass, nuclear, large hydropower and other renewable. [17]. 19 Fig 2.1: Percentage of various energy sources to world primary energy consumption in 2002 [17] On the other hand the annual energy consumption per person in the world is 74GJ which equivalent to nearly 6 liters of oil per day. [17] Fig 2.2: world production of oil and gas [17] For instance, in India the electrical peak demand has grown from 30000 MW to 120000 MW within ten years and the oil for transport sector has grown as well. [15] 20 To achieve the successful management for energy use, it is important to manage all the consumption of energy and control the costs of energy, so it is important to understand rates of energy, rate schedules, metering method and the use of various fuels in the facility. Rate schedule is the guide to determine how the costs are allocated and that’s the key for reducing utility costs as well as using energy more efficiently. One of the important aspects in that field is measuring and accounting for energy consumption, which can be verified by energy auditing program which enable the energy manager to know more about the main energy consumption equipment in the facility. The data will be used to evaluate the energy consumption in the facility and determine realistic estimation of energy use. These facilities are the mission of finding a ratio between energy consumption and production to monitor production efficiency. [18] To apply energy management and energy conservation in industrial sector too many measures must be applied to reduce the energy consumption. Many systems are working in industrial sectors such as electrical, mechanical, chemical and thermal systems. So, it’s important to study the suitable measures for each system to reach the optimum energy consumption. 21  Energy conservation opportunities in industrial sector: a- Electrical motors. b- Lighting systems. c- Power factor. d- Energy management techniques. e- Compressed air. f- Waste heat recovery. g- Utilizing solar energy. 2.1 Energy conservation opportunity in electrical motors: Polyphase induction is commonly used and widely spread as AC motors, where more than 90% of mechanical power used in industry is provided by 3-phase induction motors, due to low cost of this type, without commentator, good power factor and high efficiency and good speed regulation. [16] The power in these motors is in horse power and it can be converted to KVA using equation (2.1). kVA = HP * 0.746 (2.1) ɳ * p.f Where ɳ is the motor efficiency, p.f is motor power factor and HP is horse power capacity of the motor. Whereas the efficiency and power factor for motor vary with load. [18] 22 Motors running in full load give highest efficiency and power factor while if motors running with partial load will give poor efficiency and power factor, if power factor increases for equipment the losses in conductor will be reduced. As known there is a distance between the load and distribution board of the electricity company. If conductor is thin, losses could be ranging from 1% to 5% of the power flow and if power factor is corrected the conductor losses due to increase of apparent power can be reduced. Nowadays, most equipment has power factor corrector. [15] 2.1.1 Power losses and efficiency of motors: There are electrical losses due to heat produced from the stator current and rotor windings (copper losses) and these losses are varying with the load, magnetic losses in the iron due to hysteresis and eddy currents (core losses), mechanical losses due to friction in the bearings and ventilation (friction losses) and these losses considered to be constant and stray load losses. [16]  Factors affecting efficiency of induction motors: i) Operating motors on higher than the rated voltage may decrease the efficiency and affect negatively on other performance characteristics. ii) The electrical supply should be balanced voltage of 3.5% may increase the losses of the motor about 20%. 23 iii) The efficiency of the motor change as load changes, so it is important to choose a suitable size of the motor because using over size motor increases the motor losses and then decrease the motor efficiency. iv) In general the motor with higher speed has higher efficiency and higher power factor than other motors with lower speed. v) Multi-speed motor at each operating speed has efficiency somewhat lower than that of a single speed motor. [14] Efficiency of the motors can be expressed as in equation (2.2) which include the losses occurred and in figures 2.3 and 2.4 the losses explained in details. [16] (2.2) Where: Pmech is the mechanical losses, Pconst is the constant losses and Pcu the copper losses. Fig 2.3: power flow diagram for induction motor [16]. Electrical power input to stator =3VI1cosƟ1 (100%) Stator copper loss = 3I2R (≈ 3.5%) Stator iron loss (≈ 2.5%) Rotor copper loss (≈ 3.5%) Friction and windage loss (≈ 3.5%) Power transferred across the air gap to rotor =3E2I2cosƟ2 Mechanical power developed in rotor Mechanical power output at shaft (about 88.5%) 24 Fig 2.4: power stages in induction motors [16] 2.1.2 Energy conservation methods in motors Many measures can be applied to conserve energy in motors but in this thesis two important methods are studied: 1- Inverters. 2- Replacing existing motors by efficient motors. - Inverters: This method can change voltage and frequency together and sometimes it is called variable – speed drive (VSD). Magnetic flux of the motor can be regulated by the optimized amount using voltage and frequency regulation. In the past motors is running at low speed by reducing voltage, but now that done by changing voltage and frequency. As known the efficiency of motors is inversely proportion to slip frequency that is the difference between frequency of the stator and frequency of the rotor, by this method we can drive motors efficiently at any rotor speed and the saving rate is between 30% and 40%. Input to motor Stator copper and iron losses Rotor input Rotor copper losses Rotor output or mechanical power developed Rotor output Windage and friction losses 25 Firstly AC rectifies to DC and then DC inverted to AC by adopting IGBT high frequency sinusoidal PWM. Switching mode of IGBT can change output voltage and frequency to control motor effectively. [15] Figure 2.5 shows the schematic of inverter: Fig 2.5: Schematic of inverter [15] In industrial application three phase bridge inverters used commonly for frequency adjustment. [16] - Replacing existing motors by efficient motors: This method is feasible for motors in the range between 0.75kW to 150kW and in the following will be the explanation in details of this method in energy saving. In the past the users of motors were considering factors motors choosing like: size, weight and operating characteristics more than the efficiency of the motors, on the other hand the motor’s first cost was considered more than the life time operating cost, but as the cost of energy increased it is important to consider the operating cost to minimize it. The efficiency and power factor of high efficient motors 4% to 5% higher compared to normal conventional motors. 26 This type of motors has a number of features in construction and used materials which make this type more expensive than conventional type. The main losses are stator copper loss, rotor copper losses, core losses, friction and windings loss, and by suitable design steps, these losses reduced then the motor efficiency increased. The following are the details in the component of high efficient motors and how the losses are reduced: a) Reduce stator copper losses by increasing the amount of copper where the resistance becomes lower and thus stator copper losses and by reducing the number of turns in the slots of the stator to reduce the stator resistance and thus stator copper losses. b) Reduce rotor copper losses can be achieved by using large, high conductivity rotor bars and end rings. c) The losses of core can be reduced by using thinner lamination steel which reduces eddy current losses, increasing stator and rotor core length which leads to lower magnetic energy and using high silicon laminated steel which reduces hysteresis losses. d) Stray losses reduced by installing rotor bars from the lamination. e) Reduce windings losses by using low losses motor cooling fans.[19] 2.2 Lighting Systems: Lighting has a large part of total consumption of electrical energy, so it is important to save energy in lighting which that leads to good values of saving. 27 Saving in lighting system can achieved by reducing illumination levels, improving the efficiency of lighting system, reduce operating hours and use the day lighting as possible as. To apply energy conservation in lighting many things must be considered as the following: 1- Asses the recent case: - Room classification, Room characteristics and fixture characteristics. 2- Evaluation of lighting levels and lighting quality. 3- Estimation electrical consumption. 4- Calculation of energy cost saving after applying the energy conservation in lighting. 2.2.1 Lighting Efficiency and Lighting Basics: There are many ways to improve the lighting systems efficiency and after studying the lighting systems and understanding them it will be easy to choose a suitable way to improve the efficiency of lighting systems. There are two common lighting methods can applied, one is called the “lumen method” and the other is the “point by point method” and we will talk in details about “lumen method because this method will be used. - Lumen method: Foot- candle is the luminance on a surface of one square foot in area having a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen, this method used commonly due to its simplicity. 28 The following formula shows this method clearly: N = F1 * A (2.3) Lu * L1 * L2 * Cu Where: N= number of required lamps. F1= required foot- candle level at the task and that taken from standard catalogues, A = Area of the space. Lu= output lumen per lamp and that taken from the catalogue of the lamp, Cu= Coefficient of utilization and that related to reflected or absorbed light and its value from catalogues. L1= Depreciation factor of the lamp and that factor takes into account that the lamp lumen depreciates with time. L2= It is luminare (fixture) dirt depreciation factor and that depending on the space. To reduce the energy of lighting there are four options as the following: i) Reduce light levels. ii) Use more efficient equipment. iii) Provide light when needed at the task with required level. iv) Use control and reduce lighting loads automatically. It’s important to consider the trade-off between the initial and operating costs upon product perform like: life, efficacy, color, glare and color rendering. [18] 29 2.2.2 Light sources: Many types used for light sources and each type has characteristics and it differs from type to another and that will be explained briefly in the following: 1- Incandescent lamps: This type is the lowest efficiency type in the comparison to other commonly used lamps. Incandescent lamps not used in large areas, but it used in general and in large scale due to its low capital cost. This type of lamps has not good lumen maintenance throughout their life time. 2- Fluorescent lamps: This type has big advances in the last ten years and this type has several styles of wattage, compacted lamps recently there has been new style of products. The efficacy range of this type is from 65lm/w to over 90lm/w; also the range of colors is more complete than mercury vapor. - Compacted fluorescent lamps (CFL) open up a whole new market for fluorescent sources, this type has a design of much smaller luminaries which can complete with incandescent and mercury vapor in the low cost. In general this type is good, but lumen maintenance throughout the lifetime of lamp is a problem for some types of fluorescent lamps. 30 - Energy efficient “plus” fluorescents: This type represents the second generation of improved fluorescent lighting. The bulbs are available for replacement of standard 4 – foot 40 W, bulbs and require only 32 W with the same light levels but it need to change the ballast. Metal halide lamps: This type has efficacy range from 50 to100 lm/W, so this type more energy efficient than mercury vapor but some – what than high pressure sodium. These types generally have fairly good color rendering qualities, it also has some distinct drawbacks including relatively short life for an HID lamps. 3- High pressure sodium lamps (HPS): The efficacy of this type is from 60 to130 lm/W and that considered as high efficacy. The construction is very similar to mercury vapor and metal halide, lifetime if this type is around 2400 hours and the lumen maintenance is good and due to high efficacy these lamps used in industrial sector and outdoor applications. [18] 2.2.3 Ways and techniques to energy conservation in lighting systems: 2.2.3.1 Electronic ballasts: This method used for fluorescent lamps to save energy where it adopts high frequency inverter to drive fluorescent lamps (20 – 30 KHz) and these lamps have good efficiency when it works in high frequency and the 31 efficiency of lighting units is 20 – 30 % higher than the lighting units driven by magnetic ballasts. It supplies power to fluorescent lamps by a power factor corrector in series with a high frequency inverter where the power factor in magnetic ballast very low while in electronic ballasts may be up to 99%. [15, 18] Figure 2.6 shows the schematic of electronic ballasts: Fig 2.6: schematic of electronic ballasts [15] Certainly that’s lead to increase in the efficacy of the lamp, for example the efficacy of two lamps 40 W T-12 rapid- stand system increased from 63lm/W to over 80 lm/W. [18] 2.2.3.2 Applying Lumen method: This method will depend on applying equation (2.3) according to standard tables of lighting levels and properties of working space. 2.3 Power factor: Inefficient operation of electrical distribution systems is mainly from a low power factor. Power factor correction is cost – effective when utility penalties are imposed. Improving power factor can achieve by power factor correction devices and ways. 32 The power has two parts: resistive and reactive part, where the pure resistive power is known as watt, while reactive power is referred to as the reactive volt amperes. [18] For a balanced 3- phase load: P = √3 * VL * IL * cos Ɵ (2.4) Volt ampere power factor And for single phase: P = V * I * cos Ɵ (2.5) Power factor can be corrected by using passive power and active power methods where the passive power method installed to compensate inductive loads by capacitor and the active power method installed to control input current to be in phase with voltage by using semiconductors. [15] 2.3.1 Methods to improve the power factor: 1- Energy efficient motors: where this method is a better alternative for small motors (5 – 20 hp) and from the characteristics of energy efficient motors that they provide high efficiency and power factor in both partial and full load conditions. 2- Capacitor compensation: where that used especially for motors below 5 hp and above 20 hp and this method is usually more economical, also this method used to correct the power factor to overall the utility where the capacitors installed in the main electrical distribution boards and controlled by power factor controller. [15] 33 2.3.2 Impacts of low power factor in industrial sector and electrical network: Low power factor lead to increase in the current drawn from the network, then increase the power losses in the network, also that leads to voltage drop in the distribution lines, on the other hand low power factor leads to high penalty on the facilities and distribution companies to main supply company. [20] Figure 2.7 shows power losses as a function of p.f: Fig 2.7: power losses as a function of p.f [20] Figure 2.8 shows voltage drop as a function of p.f: Fig 2.8: voltage drop as a function of p.f [20] 34 Table 2.1 shows power factor penalties in Palestine: Table 2.1: Power factor Penalties in Palestine [20] Power factor Penalty 0.92 or more No penalty Less than 0.92 to 0.8 1% of the total bill for every 0.01 of power factor less than 0.92 Less than 0.8 to 0.7 1.25% of the total bill for every 0.01 of power factor less than 0.92 Less than 0.7 1.5% of the total bill for every 0.01 of power factor less than 0.92 2.4 Energy management techniques: 2.4.1 Time of day billing: Many utilities charge their users according to the time of day, where the energy and demand during peak periods billed at much higher rates than consumption during other times. [18] 2.4.2 Load management: It is the method of scheduling the loads to reduce the consumption of electrical energy and reduce the maximum demand which leads to improve the load factor of the system, load factor is a measure of electrical efficiency of a facility and it is a relationship between consumed electrical energy and the maximum demand through the same period. L.F (%) = kWh (2.6) Kw * hours This equation has another simpler form L.F (%) = Pav Pmax 35 Theoretical maximum load factor is one and the ideal load factor will be close to one as possible. [18, 21] This method can be applied by: 1- Utility rate structure: to reduce use of electricity during peak periods. 2- Re – schedule the consumption of energy to non peak periods. 3- Control the loads automatically by using load demand controller or computers. [15] 2.5 Compressed air systems: Compressed air systems used widely in industrial sector due to its availability, cleanness, easy using and importance in manufacturing, but unfortunately compressed air systems considered as an expensive form of energy in the plant where located because only 19% of used power converted to useful form and the other 81% is lost as heat. Figure 2.9 shows the compressor costs over a ten year lifecycle: Fig 2.9: compressor costs over a ten years lifecycle [22] 36 With a value of 73% of the cost of energy, that indicate to a great cost savings will be gained by energy efficiency improvement of compressed air systems, also which will improve the system’s performance. Energy efficiency also reduces the ratio of the compressed air used for production and minimizes unwanted losses. Figure 2.10 shows how much demand on compressed air systems can be lost: Fig 2.10: compressed air usage and potential savings for the typical compressed air use [22] The cost of compressed air has two important factors which are: the type of compressor control and the suitable size of compressor, where the oversized compressors and inefficient control modes of compressors consume highest energy and highest annual costs. [22, 23, 24, 25] 2.5.1 Ways to improve efficiency of compressed air systems: 2.5.1.1 Using outside intake air: Generally, the air supplied to the compressor’s intake is from the compressor room and that consume more energy, because the air expands 37 at higher temperature, so the compressor need to work harder to compress this hot air. The solution of that is by using cooler air from outside instead of the air from the compressor room, as thumb rule each 3⁰C will save 1% of compressor energy. [25] Table 2.2 shows clearly the effect of inlet air temperature to the energy reduction and amount of saved money in Australia: [22] Table 2.2: annual energy and cost savings with reduced compressor inlet temperature [22]. From table 2.2 it’s clear that this depends on the power of the compressor and the reduction in the air intake temperature. 2.6 Waste heat recovery: Waste heat is a heat produced from a process of fuel combustion and released to outside or not use it although it could be used in useful and economic applications and the device used to apply that is economizer or heat exchanger. 38 By heat recovery technique many benefits could achieved such as: increase the efficiency of the system which lead to reduction in fuel consumption and reduce the harmful emissions then make the system more environmentally. Waste heat recovery can apply for example in burners where the stacks pass the flue gases which holding thermal energy where normally it released to atmosphere, then that lead to reduction in fuel consumption. [26] 2.7 Utilizing solar energy: According to the dependence on fossil fuels to generate energy and the ratio of 80% from the global energy consumption from conventional energy resources, there are two important facts must be known: 1- Coal and oil production in the world will reach its maximum in 2015, and then it will decrease. 2- The global uranium production is expected to reach its maximum in 2035, but the biggest problem is in the waste of this fuel. [15,27] Industrial sector has large energy consumption, so it is feasible to study how to use some renewable energy sources to reduce the energy consumption and environmental impact. Fig 2.11 shows the global energy consumption in industrial sector and it increase from period to period: 39 Fig 2.11: Global industrial sector energy consumption during 2006-2030 [27]. According to figure 2.11, due to increase in conventional fuel prices and environmental impacts, companies are looking to another energy source. Among all renewable energy resources, solar energy has a best choice and it is the preferred from other renewable resources. Solar energy available with big quantities, free, clean and it does not make any noise. [27]. Solar energy eliminate the need of fossil fuel in energy generation, but it is varying from place to another unlike fossil fuel which completely available. Many types of renewable energy like solar energy can provide very large quantities of sustainable energy with overall efficiency higher than 10% with small environmental impacts. [28]. Solar energy applications in industrial sector divided to two main categories: solar thermal and photovoltaic. 40 Commonly applications in industrial sector are: hot water, steam, drying, preheating… Etc. [27] Table 2.3 shows the use of renewable energy in industrial sector in 2001. Table 2.3: The use of renewable energy in industrial sector [27] In this section I will explain two solar systems used in industrial sector: - Solar thermal and solar water heaters. - PV on – grid systems. 2.7.1 Solar thermal and SWH: Solar thermal is the transformation of solar radiation to heat, it considered the most economical alternative and it used in many applications such as: heating air or water in domestic uses, commercial or industrial plants. Most thermal industrial energy depends on burning fossil fuels to generate thermal energy, so the renewable energy is good choice for that. Commonly the applications of solar thermal energy in industry are SWH (where that will explained in details), solar dryers, space heating and cooling systems and water distillation. [27] 41 As mentioned SWH is one of the applications of solar thermal, this type is commonly used to heat water where the sun is the source of that type. 2.7.1.1 Optimum design of SWH in Palestine: SWH technology started in Palestine before 45 years ago and nowadays SWH used commonly to heat water and the type of thermosyphon open loop system used commonly. The following equations used to design SWH in right way: Q = m * Cw * ∆T (2.7) ASWH = Q * Sf (2.8) ɳ * Esd Where: Q: Thermal Energy required for heating (W s) m: mass of water to be heated (Kg). Cw: specific heat of water = 4186 Ws/kg- ⁰C ∆T: temperature difference. (⁰C) ɳ: efficiency of solar collector = 40% in Palestine. Esd: Daily average of solar radiation intensity = 5.4kWh / m2 – day. Sf: Factor of safety (1.15 – 1.3 in Palestine). Usually the system consists of three parallel connected collectors and each collector area is 1.7 m2 and the storage rank of hot water is 200 liters. [11] 2.7.2 PV systems technology: PV is a direct method of generating electricity from solar radiation by using solid – state devices without any heat engine. 42 PV devices are simple in design and require very little maintenance and operate for an indefinite period without wearing out. PV consists of multiple components like: cells, mechanical and electrical connection and mountings and means of regulating and / or modifying the electrical output. [17, 29] PV is elegant, but unfortunately expensive technology and it used in specialized markets like: consumer electronics remote are power supplies and satellites. More than 90% of PV market is crystalline silicon solar cells and this dominance is likely to extend for many years. Manufacturing of PV are doubling every 20 months for past 7 years. [28] On the other hand the production of PV cells in the world increased from 10MWp / year to 1200 MWp in 2004. Table 2.4 shows the development of PV technology between 1995 and 2005 and how that reflected to efficiency, cost and life. [27] Table 2.4: Development of PV technology between 1995 and 2005 [27] PV systems categorized to two main groups: stand – alone and grid connected. Stand – alone system is not connected to grid, and this type usually supported by energy storage systems like rechargeable batteries to provide electrical energy when there is no sunlight. 43 Sometimes wind or hydro systems supporting each other and that called PV hybrid systems, while grid connected system is PV system connected to the electricity grid. In this type the energy is consumed from grid where PV system energy not enough and feed in the energy to the grid when there is additional energy higher than needed and that which called “net – metering”. Grid connected PV system will explained in details and focus the study to this type. [27] 2.7.2.1 PV – on Grid systems: Grid connected PV systems is connected to big grid mostly to the public electricity grid. The range of PV systems size is from few kWp for residential purpose to up to tens of GWp for solar power stations. [29] In developed world, grid electricity is easily accessible as a convenient use the grid as ‘giant battery’. Grid can absorb PV power that is surplus to current needs especially in sunny summer times and make that available to use by other customers and reduce the amount of generation from conventional supply at night or cloudy times, when the output of the PV insufficient, the grid can provide backup energy from conventional sources. In these PV systems a synchronous inverter is used which transfers the DC power from PV into AC power at voltage and frequency accepted to the grid, while debit and credit meters measure the power brought from or sold to the utility. [17] 44 2.7.2.1.1 Elements of on - grid PV systems: Figure 2.12 shows the components of grid connected PV systems, where as shown the main two components are: PV panel and inverter. Fig 2.12: PV – on grid system [30] PV panel receive the solar radiation and transfer it to electrical energy and it has a properties according to types and location conditions as mentioned before in details. Inverter fix the voltage of panel operation or use maximum power point tracking function to reach to the best operating voltage for the panel. Inverter operates in phase with the grid and Delivers power as much as it can to the electricity grid, also inverter convert the DC power received from PV panel to AC power with desired voltage and frequency to be able to use it. [30] 2.7.2.1.2 Design of on - grid PV systems: It’s important to design grid connected PV system in right way to be able to use its power as possible as, so it’s important to use the following equations in the design of grid connected PV system components. 45 PVenergy = Energy consumption per day (2.9) Inverter efficiency PVpeak power = PV energy * safety factor (2.10) (2.10) Peak sun hours Number of series modules = Voltage of the PV generator (2.11) Voltage of one module Number of strings = Number of modules (2.12) Number of series modules While for the inverter the following conditions must take in consideration: - The input rating of the inverter must be equal to PV panel rating for safety and efficient operation. - Inverter power must be greater than to the required power. - The inverter efficiency must be greater than 90%. [31] 46 Chapter Three Energy audit in different facilities in West Bank Three facilities are studied in this thesis which are: - Golden Wheat Mills Company. ( GWMC) - National Beverages Company. (NBC) - National Aluminum and Profile Company. (NAPCO) 3.1 Energy audit in Golden Wheat Mills Company (GWMC): 3.1.1 About the company: Golden Wheat Mills Company established in Ramallah in 1995 as public share holding company, this company produces flour with many types and this company consists of Swiss motors and machines. There are many building in the company: Management building, Mill building which consists of 5 floors, scale, maintenance, cafeteria, watchman and warehouse. Milling process consumes the highest scale of energy consumed and there are programs in milling process and each program consists of group of machines related to specific task and all these machines controlled by SCADA software fully automatic. The company fed by three transformers each transformer rated at 630 KVA and there is standby generator with rated 620KVA and JDECO is the main supplier to the electricity power. 47 3.1.2 Energy measures opportunities in GWMC company: In this company the situation of existing energy consumption will studied in different systems as the following: 1- Power transformers. 2- Tariff system. 3- Motors. 4- Lighting systems. 5- Compressed air system. 6- Utilizing solar energy. In this facility the energy audit needed the following instruments: - Multimeter. - Power meter. - Energy analyzer. - Luxmeter. - Thermometer. 3.1.2.1 Power transformers: The annual electrical energy consumption in 2013 was 1863616 kWh and no power factor penalties because the power factor corrected in right way, figure 3.1 shows the monthly consumption of electricity during 2013. [32] 48 Fig 3.1: monthly consumption of electrical energy (GWMC) [27] The energy analyzer device is installed on the three transformers and data were analyzed and formed the following curves. - Transformer 1 data: Figure 3.2 shows the daily apparent power consumed for transformer 1: Fig 3.2: Time Vs. Apparent power curve (transformer 1, GWMC) Figure 3.3 shows Time Vs. Three phase currents curve for transformer 1: 49 Fig 3.3: Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 1, GWMC) Figure 3.4 shows Time Vs. power factor curve for transformer 1: Fig 3.4: Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 1, GWMC) - Transformer 2 data: Figure 3.5 shows the daily apparent power consumed for transformer 2: Fig 3.5: Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 2, GWMC) 50 Figure 3.6 shows Time Vs. Three phase currents curve for transformer 2: Fig 3.6: Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 2, GWMC) Figure 3.7 shows Time Vs. Power factor curve for transformer 2: Fig 3.7: Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 2, GWMC) - Transformer 3 data: Figure 3.8 shows the daily apparent power consumed for transformer 3: Fig 3.8: Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 3, GWMC) 51 Figure 3.9 shows Time Vs. Three phase currents curve for transformer 3: Fig 3.9: Time Vs. three phase currents curve (transformer 3, GWMC) Figure 3.10 shows Time Vs. Power factor curve for transformer 3: Fig 3.10: Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 3, GWMC) Good results didn’t obtained in transformers 1 and 3 due to not normal operation so, instead of that, I got readings from LCD display and took data from it, to know the currents and power consumed in the company in the normal operation I found the following curves : - Transformer 1 : time Vs. Apparent power ( reading taken every 30 minutes): 52 Fig 3.11: Time Vs. apparent power [enhanced readings, transformer 1, GWMC] - Transformer 3 time Vs. apparent power ( reading taken every 30 minutes): Fig 3.12: Time Vs. apparent power [enhanced readings, transformer 3, GWMC] Now it’s clear to make the needed calculations to load factor for the transformers and utility according to daily load curve and according to equation (2.6) {L.F = Sav/ Smax } Load factor for transformers will show in table 3.1 considering the average apparent power in each transformer and the rated for transformers: 53 Table 3.1: load factor for transformers Transformer number Sav (KVA) Smax (KVA) Load factor (%) Transformer 1 103 630 16.35 Transformer 2 123.35 630 19.58 Transformer 3 100.11 630 15.89 Load factor for the daily load curve of the utility panels show in table 3.2 as the following: Table 3.2: Load factor for the utility panels Panel Number Sav (kVA) Smax (kVA) Load factor (%) Panel 1 103 340 30.29 Panel 2 123.35 390 31.62 Panel 3 100.11 325 30.8 The average apparent power in three transformers were small because the load daily operation is 8 hours not during 24 hours, on the other hand the results from one time not enough to reflect the accurate results. 3.1.2.2 Energy conservation in the motors in the company: Motors are the main loads in factories in general and the saving on them reflects to big effect in the reducing the consumption which leads to reduce the running cost. 54 There are many motors in the company (around 200 motors), but the studied sample was 30 motors which are high power motors and drives heavy loads. The range of the power for these motors is from 5.5kW to 132kW and the types are ABB and Brock Hansen. In these motors two energy saving methods could be applied, using inverters and replacing with efficient motors and that shown in tables 3.2 and 3.3. Table 3. 3 show the measured data of these motors and the electrical energy saved by using inverters where the saving could be gained of electrical energy is 30%. Also Table 3.4 showing the needed measured data which held to evaluate the operation of these motors and see the ability to replace these motors by high efficient according to appendix [F], also decide if the size is suitable according to loads and measured currents and power, then show the energy saved by this method. 55 a) Energy saving in motors by using inverters: Table 3.3: motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from using inverters Motor number Power (kW) Yearly operating hours Yearly consumption of electrical energy (kWh) Yearly saving in electrical energy (kWh) 3-M014 13.63 1600 21808 6542.4 3-M026 13.65 1600 21840 6552 3-M524 13.5 1600 21600 6480 3-M012 24 1600 38400 11520 3-M504 17.5 1600 28000 8400 3-M503 20.7 1600 33120 9936 3-M006 27 1600 43200 12960 3-M021 12.5 1600 20000 6000 3-M022 17.6 1600 28160 8448 3-M525 16.5 1600 26400 7920 3-M040 9.73 1600 15568 4670.4 3-M037 12.85 1600 20560 6168 3-M036 13.28 1600 21248 6374.4 3-M035 9.95 1600 15920 4776 3-M023 12.78 1600 20448 6134.4 3-M043 6.5 1600 10400 3120 3-M532 7.5 1600 12000 3600 3-M044 7.1 1600 11360 3408 3-M045 7 1600 11200 3360 3-M061 2.4 1600 3840 1152 3-M531 4.14 1600 6624 1987.2 3-M546 1.14 1600 1824 547.2 3-M505 17.9 1600 28640 8592 3-M500 62 1600 99200 29760 3-M001 118 1600 188800 56640 4-M502 6.7 1600 10720 3216 3-M025 14.25 1600 22800 6840 2-M011 7.78 3000 23340 7002 5-M001 8 3000 24000 7200 4-M001 41.78 1200 50136 15040.8 Total yearly consumption (kWh) 881156 Total yearly saving (kWh) 264346.8 56 b) Energy saving in motors by replacing them with efficient motors: Table 3.4: motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from replacing motors by efficient motors. Motor number Power (kW) Yearly operating hours Yearly consumption of electrical energy (kWh) Old efficiency Ability to replacement New efficiency Yearly saving in electrical energy (kWh) 3-M014 13.63 1600 21808 0.911 yes 0.928 720.05 3-M026 13.65 1600 21840 0.892 yes 0.928 1297.74 3-M524 13.5 1600 21600 0.916 yes 0.928 421.25 3-M012 24 1600 38400 0.931 yes 0.936 273.96 3-M504 17.5 1600 28000 0.95 no need ** 0 3-M503 20.7 1600 33120 0.933 no need ** 0 3-M006 27 1600 43200 0.933 no need ** 0 3-M021 12.5 1600 20000 0.912 yes 0.928 676.95 3-M022 17.6 1600 28160 0.912 yes 0.928 676.95 3-M525 16.5 1600 26400 0.892 yes 0.928 1297.74 3-M040 9.73 1600 15568 0.884 yes 0.92 1056.71 3-M037 12.85 1600 20560 0.884 yes 0.92 1056.71 3-M036 13.28 1600 21248 0.884 yes 0.92 1056.71 3-M035 9.95 1600 15920 0.884 yes 0.92 1056.71 3-M023 12.78 1600 20448 0.916 yes 0.928 421.25 3-M043 6.5 1600 10400 0.879 yes 0.915 7590.93 3-M532 7.5 1600 12000 0.908 yes 0.92 342.93 3-M044 7.1 1600 11360 0.879 yes 0.915 7590.93 3-M045 7 1600 11200 0.879 yes 0.915 7590.93 3-M061 2.4 1600 3840 0.862 yes 0.879 3595.61 3-M531 4.14 1600 6624 0.908 yes 0.911 13188.66 3-M546 1.14 1600 1824 0.853 yes 0.879 3705.19 3-M505 17.9 1600 28640 0.937 no need ** 0 3-M500 62 1600 99200 0.939 yes 0.945 807.07 3-M001 118 1600 188800 0.958 no need ** 0 4-M502 6.7 1600 10720 0.831 yes 0.911 1261.32 3-M025 14.25 1600 22800 0.909 yes 0.928 672.11 2-M011 7.78 3000 23340 0.879 yes 0.92 2269.33 5-M001 8 3000 24000 0.869 yes 0.915 1942.72 4-M001 41.78 1200 50136 0.939 yes 0.945 453.98 Total yearly consumption (kWh) 881156 Total yearly saving (kWh) 61023.81 57 This sample of motors consumes around 47.28% from the total electrical energy. As mentioned before the percentage of expected saving in electrical energy by using inverters is 30% and from the total yearly saving in electrical energy is 14.18%. Equation (2.2) shows the efficiency of the motors and according to this equation another simplified form of this equation formed to calculate the effect of replacing conventional motors by efficient easily as shown below. ∆P = Pout (1/ɳ1 – 1/ ɳ2) (3.1) The percentage of expected saving in electrical energy from this method is around 6.93% and from the total yearly electrical energy is 3.27%. From all that the total yearly saving in electrical energy in motors is 325370.61kWh and the percentage of total saving in motors is 36.93% and from the total electrical energy consumption in the company is 17.46%. 3.1.2.3 Energy conservation in the lighting systems in the company: Lighting systems has a good chance in energy conservation because many ways to reduce consumption can apply for example in awareness, using efficient equipments and using the solar radiation to supply electrical energy. According to large number of fluorescent lamp units the suggestion is to replace the magnetic ballast by electronic where that lead to good value of energy conservation. 58 In general most spaces used natural light and the concentration of lighting study is replacing the magnetic ballasts with electronic in fluorescent lamps, but we noticed a dark space in the mill (11lm/m2) and not possible to use the natural light where we didn’t stop, so we measured the lux by luxmeter for this space and it was11lm/m2 and see the suitable lights suggestion to the space and if it needs to add unit lamps according to standards in this space (100 lm/m2) and the equation used to make the calculations of install or remove units is equation (2.3) by using lumen method. From all that in lighting system the concentration will be on: - Study the lighting level in mentioned space in the company to reach to optimum case. - Replace the magnetic ballasts in fluorescent lamps by electronic ballasts. - Replace incandescent lamps with CFL 20 watt lamps. Table 3.5 shows the lighting types in company spaces with a yearly consumption of electricity: 59 Table 3.5: Lighting types and yearly consumption of electricity in the company Space Lamps types Number of units Power (W) [include ballasts] Yearly operating hours Yearly consumed electrical energy (kWh) Offices FL 4*18 W 45 3600 1848 6652.8 FL 1*36 W 5 205 600 123 CFL 2*26 W 28 1680 1848 3104.64 CFL 1*13 W 6 96 1848 177.408 CFL 1*20 W 2 40 1200 48 Watchman FL 2*36 W 4 331.2 8760 2901.312 INC 1*75 W 1 75 1460 109.5 Cafeteria FL 4*18 W 8 640 3600 2304 FL 2*36 W 1 82.8 3600 298.08 CFL 2*26 W 21 1260 3600 4536 maintenan ce FL 2*36 W 20 1656 1200 1987.2 INC 1*75 W 2 150 600 90 Bags printing FL 2*36 W 3 248.4 900 223.56 Bran warehouse Metal halide 400 W 8 3360 600 2016 Scale FL 2*36 W 2 165.6 1200 198.72 Mill, ground floor FL 2*36 W 93 7700.4 3600 27721.44 Mill, 1st floor FL 2*36 W 84 6955.2 3600 25038.72 Mill, 2nd floor FL 2*36 W 46 3808.8 3600 13711.68 Mill, 3rd floor FL 2*36 W 41 3394.8 3600 12221.28 Mill, 4th floor FL 2*36 W 47 3891.6 3600 14009.76 Mill, 5th floor FL 2*36 W 59 4885.2 3600 17586.72 External MH 400W 13 5460 4380 23914.8 Total ( kWh) 158974.6 Lighting system has a percentage of 8.53% of total electrical energy. 60 - Suggestions in lighting system conservation opportunities in the company: a) In the company there is a space darker than needed and by measuring lighting level in this space it was 11lm/m2, and according to the standards it must be 100 lm/m2 and the suggestion is to reduce the height of lamp units by using chains and increase the tall of the wires to increase lighting level and that lead to remove extra lighting units and I found 15 units (FL 2*36 W) need to reduce their heights. The saving gained by this method is removing 2 units (FL 2*36 W) which leads to yearly saving in electrical energy 596.16kWh. b) Replacing incandescent lamps with CFL 20 watt lamps: Most lamps in the company are CFL 20 watt lamps, but there are 3 incandescent lamps 75 watts as shown in table 3.4, I propose to replace them with CFL 20 watt lamps and from that the total yearly saving is 53.2kWh. c) Opportunity to replace magnetic ballast by electronic ballast: 1- FL 2*36 W units: In magnetic ballast each unit consume 82.8 W after measuring by powermeter and in electronic ballast the consumption became 72.128 W after measuring by powermeter where the amount of saving is 10.672*10-3 kW for each unit where each one needs two ballasts with one ballast for one lamp. 2- FL 1*36 W units: 61 In magnetic ballast each unit consume 41.4 W after measuring by powermeter and in electronic ballast the consumption became 36.064 W after measuring by powermeter where the amount of saving is 5.336*10-3 kW for each unit where each one needs one ballast. 3- FL 4*18 W units: In magnetic ballast each unit consume 80.04 W after measuring by powermeter and in electronic ballast the consumption became 72.128 W after measuring by powermeter where the amount of saving is7.912*10- 3kW for each unit where each one needs two ballasts with one ballast for two lamps. Table 3.6 shows in details yearly saving electrical energy in fluorescent lamps after using electronic ballast instead of magnetic. 62 Table 3.6: yearly saving in electrical energy in fluorescent lamps after using electronic ballasts space Lamps types Number of units saving for each unit (kW) Yearly operatin g hours Yearly saved electrical energy (kWh) offices FL 4*18 W 45 0.007912 1848 657.96 FL 1*36 W 5 0.005336 600 16.01 Watchman FL 2*36 W 4 0.010672 8760 373.94 Cafeteria FL 4*18 W 8 0.007912 3600 227.87 FL 2*36 W 1 0.010672 3600 38.41 maintenance FL 2*36 W 20 0.010672 1200 256.13 Bags printing FL 2*36 W 3 0.010672 900 28.81 scale FL 2*36 W 2 0.010672 1200 25.61 Mill, ground floor FL 2*36 W 93 0.010672 3600 3572.99 Mill, 1st floor FL 2*36 W 84 0.010672 3600 3227.213 Mill, 2nd floor FL 2*36 W 46 0.010672 3600 1767.28 Mill, 3rd floor FL 2*36 W 41 0.010672 3600 1575.19 Mill, 4th floor FL 2*36 W 47 0.010672 3600 1805.702 Mill, 5th floor FL 2*36 W 59 0.010672 3600 2266.733 Total yearly saved electrical energy ( kWh) 15839.86 The total yearly saving in lighting system is 16489.22 kWh, so the percentage of total saving in lighting system is 10.37% and from total yearly electrical energy is 0.88%. 3.1.2.4 Analysis of compressed air system in the company: Compressed air system is a very important system in this company because every element in manufacturing processes use compressed air also this system has a large consumption in the comparison with other systems and 63 that found clearly in this company where the compressed air system has a percentage of 2.96% from overall consumption of electrical energy. Compressor unit has the following characteristics: Pressure: 10 bar. Flow rate: 58.1 L/sec. Power: 22kW, 30 HP. Rotation: 2940 r/min. During the operation the load factor was around 50% and daily consumption in electrical energy is 176kWh/day with 16 operating hours daily day and night and the yearly electrical consumption is 52800kWh with a percentage of total electrical consumption 2.83% Leakage detection in compressed air system is difficult and need special detection device also the pipes installation and design, so the suggestion is to reduce the temperature of inlet air to see how that reduce the consumption of electrical energy. According to thumb rule each 3⁰C of reduced temperature save around 1% of compressor energy [25], table 3.7 shows the yearly saving in electrical energy in compressed air system: 64 Table 3.7: yearly saving in electrical energy in compressed air system Season Temperature difference (⁰C)* Percentag e of saving Operating hours Saving in electrical energy (kWh) Summer 10 3% 864 285.12 Spring and autumn 12 4% 2688 1182.72 Winter 15 5% 1248 686.4 Total yearly saving in electrical energy (kWh) 2154.24  These values taken according to estimated temperature from the installed thermometer during the year. From all that the percentage of saving in compressed air system is around 4.08% and from the total yearly consumption of electrical energy is 0.12%. Summary: The overall yearly saving in electrical energy after applying the suggestion methods to reduce the consumption of electrical energy will show in table3.8: Table 3.8: overall yearly saving in electrical energy (GWMC) System Amount of yearly saving (kWh) Percentage of yearly saving from system’s consumption Percentage of yearly saving from total electrical energy Motors (inverters and efficient motors) 325370.61 36.93% 17.46% Lighting 16489.22 10.37% 0.88% Compressed air 2154.24 4.08% 0.12% Overall yearly saving 344014.07 ----- 18.46% 65 3.1.2.5 Analysis of utilizing solar energy in GWMC company: In this company the proposed use of solar energy divided to two uses which are solar water heater to heat water and PV on grid system to generate electricity and that will explain in the following sections with take consideration of daily electricity consumption of 5105.8 kWh. 3.1.2.5.1 Solar thermal energy and SWH in GWMC company: In this company the use of hot water is only for domestic uses where there are three hot water boilers in: maintenance, cafeteria and management building and table 3.9 show the yearly consumption of electrical energy for hot water boilers which measured by multi meter. Table 3.9: yearly consumption of hot water boilers location Current (A) Voltage (V) Power (kW) Yearly operating hours Yearly consumed of electrical energy (kWh) Maintenance 10.67 219 2.3367 900 2103.03 Cafeteria and toilets 10.21 219 2.23599 1500 3354 Management building 10.48 220 2.3056 600 1383.36 Total 6840.39 The percentage of the electrical consumption of hot water boilers is 0.38% from the total electrical consumption. The suggestion is using SWH to reduce the consumption of electrical energy and save good amount of cost. 66 - Design of SWH: To compute the energy consumed by this 200 liter of hot water, we assumed that the average temperature of the water is 20⁰C, and the solar collectors will increase it to 65⁰C; then energy needed could be calculated using equation (2.7) So after using the equation (2.7) to compute energy consumption I obtain: Q = m × Cp × ΔT Q = 200 * 4.186 * [65 – 20] Q = 37674 KJ Now after calculating the energy needed per day on the basis of kWh/day, the solar panels could be designed by using equation (2.8): Acollector = Energy Solar radiation daily intensity * ɳcollector Acollector = 10.4654 = 4.85 m2. 5.4* 0.4 67 The number of collector as the following: So, three collectors will be used, and the actual area of collectors is 3*1.7 = 5.1 m2. Table 3.10 shows the amount of saving in electrical energy after installing SWH: Table 3.10: yearly saved electrical energy after installing SWH Location Yearly operating hours of SWH Yearly saving in electrical energy (kWh) Maintenance 630 1472.121 Cafeteria and toilets 1050 2347.79 Management building 420 968.352 Total (kWh) 4788.263 The percentage of saving is around 70% of the consumption of hot water boilers and from the total yearly electrical energy is 0.26%. 3.1.2.5.2 Analysis of utilizing on – grid PV system in GWMC company: The proposed PV on grid systems in this company and other companies is design PV systems to reduce the total electricity consumption with a percentage 10% as the following: The daily electricity consumption is 5105.797kWh and 10% of this value is 510.58kWh, so the minimum produced PV energy is 510.58kWh and in 68 design the system must be larger to be able to sell the surplus electrical energy. We need to apply equations (2.9) and (2.10) to design good PV system as the following: PVenergy = 510.58/0.9 = 567.31kWh. PVpeak power = (567.31/5.4) * 1.2 = 126kW. The suggestion is to use PV module type Poly HSL 72 300 W where its peak power is 300 W at standard conditions. Number of modules = 126/0.3 = 420.23 modules. To make sure to cover needed load and to obtain net metering tariff my suggestion is to use 500 modules, so the peak power of this PV system is 150kW. Then divide this system to 5 subsystems (arrays) with 100 modules and the peak power 30kW for each to make the system easier in maintenance and provide many sectors in the facility as possible as. According to equation (2.11) and the electrical properties of PV module the number of series modules in one array is 48/36.1 = 1.33 ≈2 modules. According to equation (2.12) to calculate the number of strings it will be 100/2 = 50 strings in each array. 69 From all that the inverters used are 5 three phase on grid inverters and their type is ABB PRO – 33.0 – TL – OUTD with 33kW rated and 90% efficiency. If each 1 kilowatt peak PV modules need 9m2 area, so this system needs 150*9 = 1350 m2 divided to 5 arrays where each array needs 270 m2 areas. Fig 3.13 shows the diagram of on – grid PV system in GWMC: Fig 3.13: PV – on grid diagram in GWMC 1 5 1 2 99 100 1 50 3- phase on – grid inverter Load 497 498 499 500 1 50 3- phase on – grid inverter Load Array 1 Array 5 70  Summary: Table 3.11 will shows the overall saving could gain from utilizing solar energy (SWH and PV – on grid system). Table 3.11: the overall saving from utilizing solar energy (GWMC) system Amount of yearly saving (kWh) Percentage of yearly saving from system’s consumption Percentage of yearly saving from total electrical energy Hot water and SWH 4788.263 70% 0.26% PV – on grid system 186361.6 ----- 10% Overall yearly saving 191149.863 ----- 10.26% 3.2 Energy audit in National Beverages Company (NBC): 3.2.1 About the company: National Beverages Company established by a group of Palestinian businessmen in 1998 as a private limited company in the food and beverage sector and this company comprises of more than 350 employees and its location in Ramallah. NBC is licensed with the international Coca-Cola Company to produce high quality carbonated soft drinks, mineral water and juices using state of the art manufacturing technologies. The area of the factory is about 1200 m2 with two buildings: offices and factory. 71 The company fed by two transformers with a rated of 1000 KVA each and JDECO is the supplier of the electricity. 3.2.2 Energy management opportunities in NBC: During the visit to the company, we found that the following systems can be included in our analysis for determining energy conservation measures: 1- Power transformers. 2- Motors. 3- Lighting systems. 4- Compressed air system. 5- Utilizing solar energy. In this facility the energy audit needed the following instruments: - Multimeter. - Power meter. - Energy analyzer. - Luxmeter. - Thermometer. 3.2.2.1 Power transformers: The annual electrical energy consumption is 4723914.6kWh according to estimation from energy analyzer readings and no power factor penalties because the power factor corrected. The energy analyzer device is installed on the two transformers and data were analyzed and formed the following curves. 72 - Transformer 1 data: Figure 3.14 shows the daily apparent power consumed for transformer 1: Fig 3.14: Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 1, NBC) Figure 3.15 shows Time Vs. Three phase currents curve for transformer 1: Fig 3.15: Time Vs. Three phase currents curve (transformer 1, NBC) Figure 3.16 shows Time Vs. Power factor curve for transformer 1: Fig 3.16: Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 1, NBC) 73 - Transformer 2 data: Figure 3.17 shows the daily apparent power consumed for transformer 2: Fig 3.17: Time Vs. apparent power curve (transformer 2, NBC) Figure 3.18 shows Time Vs. Three phase currents curve for transformer 2: Fig 3.18: Time Vs. Three phase currents curve (transformer 2, NBC) Figure 3.19 shows Time Vs. Power factor curve for transformer 2: Fig 3.19: Time Vs. power factor curve (transformer 2, NBC) 74 Now it’s clear to make the needed calculations to load factor for the transformers panels of the utility by using equation (2.6) as the following: For transformers table 3.12 shows that in details: Table 3.12: load factor for transformers Transformer number Sav (KVA) Smax (KVA) Load factor (%) Transformer 1 417.93 1000 41.79 Transformer 2 325.59 1000 32.56 Load factor for the daily load curve of the utility panels show in table 3.13 as the following: Table 3.13: load factor for utility panels Panel number Sav (KVA) Smax (KVA) Load factor (%) Transformer 1 417.93 564.77 74 Transformer 2 325.59 571.21 57 Load factor for the transformers is low, but take one reading not reflect the normal condition of the loads, on the other hand the daily load factor of the utility in good. 75 3.2.2.2 Energy conservation in the motors in the company: In this company there are many motors drive loads and certainly it’s feasible to see techniques to save energy in motors. Most motors are small and drive small loads, but there are seven big motors used to compression processes and their rating from 55kW to 280kW. Table 3.14 show the needed measured data to evaluate the operation of these motors and see the ability to replace these motors by efficient motors according to appendix (F), also decide if the size is suitable or not according to loads and measured currents and power, and see the effect of using inverters in these motors then show the energy saved by this method.  Due these motors are compressors the estimated load factor is 50%, and that means half time working with no load and the another half time working with load. 76 Table 3.14: motors consumption and saving in electrical energy from replacing motors by efficient motors These data from measurements by power meter and multimeter and analyze them to know the feasibility of suggestion replacing the motors. The percentage of the consumption of this sample of motors to the total yearly consumption of electrical energy is around 20.64%. If we used inverters in these motors we can reduce the electrical consumption with a percentage 30%, then the total yearly saving will be 292500kWh. On the other hand applying equation (3.1) show how replacing conventional motors with efficient where this technique saved energy and this equation applied to these motors to see the amount of total yearly saving in electrical energy as shown in table 3.14. Motor name Power (kW) Yearly operating hours Yearly consumption of electrical energy (kWh) Old efficiency Ability to replace ment New efficiency Yearly saving in energy (kWh) 40 bar comp 158 6000 474000 0.854 Yes 0.955 69288.35 PET 1 comp 66 3000 99000 0.804 Yes 0.944 25801.21 PET2 comp 66 3000 99000 0.804 Yes 0.944 25801.21 CAN1 comp 57 3000 85500 0.822 Yes 0.945 17718.69 CAN2 comp 57 3000 85500 0.822 Yes 0.945 17718.69 NRB1 comp 44 3000 66000 0.849 Yes 0.945 10042.07 NRB2 comp 44 3000 66000 0.849 yes 0.945 10042.07 Total yearly consumption (kWh) 975000 Total yearly saving (kWh) 176412.29 77 It’s clear that this sample of motors may reduce energy in a percentage of 48.1% and the amount of total yearly saving in motors is 468912.29kWh and that with a percentage of 9.9%. 3.2.2.3 Energy conservation in the lighting system in the company: As mentioned before about the lighting and how to save energy in this system and show the opportunities to save energy in lighting system in this company, where NBC already saves energy in lighting by using solar radiation as possible as and remove extra lamps, so no need to remove or replace lamps units, while another thing can do in lighting system which is replacing magnetic ballasts in fluorescent lamps by electronic ballasts. Table 3.15 shows the lighting types and yearly electricity consumption in NBC: 78 Table 3.15: lighting types and yearly consumption of electricity in NBC space Lamps types Number of units Power (W) [include ballasts] Yearly operating hours Yearly consumed electricity (kWh) offices FL 2*36 W 49 4057.2 2400 9737.28 FL 2*36 W 61 4880 2400 11712 CFL 2*23 W 57 2850 2400 6840 CFL 2*23 W 2 50 2400 120 Cafeteria 1 FL 1*36 W 1 41 900 36.9 Cafeteria 2 CFL 2*23 W 17 850 900 765 Store FL 1*36 W 1 41 600 24.6 Meeting room 1 CFL 2*23 W 4 200 600 120 CFL 1*23 W 4 100 600 60 Meeting room 2 CFL 2*23 W 18 1116 600 669.6 Factory offices FL 4*18 W 8 640 6000 3840 Factory MH 400 W 26 10920 6000 65520 Syrup room MH 250 W 4 1040 6000 6240 Total (kWh) 105685.38 The percentage of the lighting consumption is around 2.24% from total yearly consumption. The proposed solution is replace the magnetic ballasts in fluorescent lamps by electronic ballasts to save energy and that shown in details in table 3.16 and the amount of saving will be as the following: 1- FL 2*36 W units: 10.672*10-3kW. 2- FL 1*36 W units: 5.336*10-3kW. 3- FL 4*18 W units: 7.912*10-3kW. 79 Table 3.16: yearly saving in electrical energy from using electronic ballasts in fluorescent lamps Space Lamps types Number of units Saving for each unit (kW) Yearly operating hours Yearly saved electricity (kWh) Offices FL 2*36 W 49 0.010672 2400 1255.03 FL 4*18