An-Najah National University Faculty of Graduate Studies Morphological and Agronomic Traits Characterization of Local Durum Wheat (Triticum turgadum var. durum) Varieties Under Different Environmental Conditions in Palestine By Nasser Mohammad Mahmoud Abbadi Supervisor Dr. Hassan Abu- Qaoud Co- Supervisor Dr. Aziz Salameh This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Plant Production, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine. 2015 III Dedication This thesis is dedicated to: The sake of Allah, my Creator and my Master. My great teacher and messenger, Mohammed (May Allah bless and grant him), who taught us the purpose of life. My homeland Palestine, the warmest womb; the great martyrs and prisoners. The souls of my great parents, "Lord, be merciful to them just as they brought me up with kindness and affection." My beloved brothers and sister; who stands by me when things look bleak. My dearest wife, who leads me through the valley of darkness with light of hope and support. My beloved kids: Ahmad, Aya and Mohammed, the flowers of my life and hope. My friends who encourage and support me. All the people in my life who touch my heart. I dedicate this research. IV Acknowledgments  Praise and thanks to the Almighty Allah for conciliation, and providing patience.  Financial support by ICARDA and AFESD is greatly acknowledged.  I owe a great deal of thanks to my supervisor Dr. Hassan Abu- Qaoud for his generous advice, excellent suggestions, kindness, and allowing me allot of his time.  Sincere thanks go to my second supervisor Dr. Aziz Salameh head of plant production and protection research department- NARC who helped me to do the field work and thesis preparation.  All appreciation and thanks to Dr. Mohammad Abu- Eid, director general of NARC for his technical and administrative support through time of research.  Sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Rula Sameer who had put her nice input in formatting parts of the thesis, Eng. Sameh Jarrar for his friendly help and technical support, Alot of thanks goes to all my colleagues in Plant production and protection department, other departments and agricultural stations of NARC.  Special appreciation to Dr. Abdullah Alomari, ICARDA coordinator in Palestine for his constructive criticism, invaluable assistance and guidance.  My appreciation is also extending to Dr. Jehad Abbadi, the head of Biology department at Al-Quds University for his scientific support during my study. VI List of Contents No. Content Page Dedication III Acknowledgments IV Declaration V Lists of Abbreviations VI List of Contents VI List of Tables X List of Figures XIII List of Abbreviations XIV Abstract XV Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review 7 2.1 Taxonomy and Classification of wheat 7 2.2 Origin, domestication and distribution of wheat 8 2.3 Wheat landraces or local varieties 10 2.3.1 Definition and synonyms 10 2.3.2 General characteristics of landraces 11 2.3.3 Importance of wheat landraces in agro-systems 12 2.3.4 Conservation and utilization of wheat landrace 13 2.3.5 Landraces and the Future of Wheat Diversity 14 2.3.6 Characterization and evaluation of wheat landraces studies 15 2.3.7 Studying wheat landraces in Palestine 16 2.4 Growth stages of wheat 16 2.5 Characterization and variety identification of wheat 17 2.5.1 Morphological Characterization 17 2.5.1.1 Seed characteristics 17 2.5.1.2 Seedling characteristics 18 2.5.1.3 Morphological characters of plant 18 2.5.2 Chemical characterization 20 2.5.2.1 Phenol test 20 2.5.2.2 Peroxidase enzyme activity test 21 2.5.2.3 Potassium hydroxide test 21 2.5.2.4 Sodium hydroxide test 21 2.5.2.5 Seedling growth response to GA3 22 2.5.3 Molecular marker 22 Chapter 3: Materials and Methods 23 3.1 Plant Material 23 3.2 Experimental Locations and Seasons 23 VII 3.3 Field Preparation 25 3.4 Sowing 25 3.5 Cultural Practices 25 3.5.1 Weed Control 25 3.5.2 Additive fertilization 26 3.5.3 Harvesting and threshing 26 3.6 Measured Parameters 26 3.6.1 Morphological Characterization 26 3.6.1.1 Plant vegetative characteristics 27 3.6.1.1.1 Coleoptile Anthocyanin Coloration (CAC) 27 3.6.1.1.2 Flag leaf Anthocyanin Coloration of Auricles (FACA) 27 3.6.1.1.3 Frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves (FPRF) 27 3.6.1.1.4 Glaucosity of lower side of flag leaf blade (GF ) 28 3.6.1.1.5 Glaucosity of ear's neck (GN ) 28 3.6.1.1.6 Peduncle attitude (PA) 28 3.6.1.1.7 Straw pith in cross (SPC) 28 3.6.1.1.8 Plant growth habit (GH) 29 3.6.1.2 Spike Characteristics 29 3.6.1.2.1 Spike glaucosity (SG) 30 3.6.1.2.2 Spike shape (SS) 30 3.6.1.2.3 Spike density (SD) 30 3.6.1.2.4 Spike color (SC) 30 3.6.1.2.5 Awns color (AC) 31 3.6.1.2.6 Awns attitude (AA) 31 3.6.1.2.7 Awns roughness (AR) 31 3.6.1.2.8 Awns or scurs presence (ASP) 31 3.6.1.2.9 Lower glume shape (GS) 31 3.6.1.2.10 Lower glume external hairiness (GEH) 32 3.6.1.2.11 Lower glume shoulder width (GSW) 32 3.6.1.2.12 Lower glume shoulder shape (GSS) 33 3.6.1.2.13 Lower glume peak length (GPL) 33 3.6.1.2.14 Lower glume peak curvate (GPC) 33 3.6.1.3 Grain characteristics 34 3.6.1.3.1 Grain color (GC) 34 3.6.1.3.2 Grain shape (GS) 34 3.6.2 Agronomic Traits Evaluation 35 3.6.2.1 Field growth performance 35 3.6.2.1.1 Number of fertile tillers per plant (NT) 35 3.6.2.1.2 Plant Height (PTHT) 35 3.6.2.1.3 Spike length (SL) 35 3.6.2.1.4 Awns length (AL) 35 VIII 3.6.2.1.5 Days to ear emergence (DEE) 36 3.6.2.1.6 Days to maturity (DMAT) 36 3.6.2.1.7 Filling period (FP) 36 3.6.2.2 Reaction to rust and lodging 36 3.6.2.2.1 Leaf rust reaction (LRR) 36 3.6.2.2.2 Lodging reaction (LOD) 38 3.6.2.3 Yield performance 38 3.6.2.3.1 Number of spiklets per spike (NSPS) 38 3.6.2.3.2 Number of grains per spike (NGS) 38 3.6.2.3.3 Thousand Grain weight by grams (TGW) 38 3.6.2.3.4 Hectoliter Grain weight (HGW) 38 3.6.2.3.5 Biological Yield (BYLD) 39 3.6.2.3.6 Grain Yield (GYLD) 39 3.6.2.3.7 Straw Yield (SYLD) 39 3.7 Experimental Design and Data analysis 40 Chapter 4: Results and Discussion 41 4.1 Morphological Characterization 41 4.1.1 Plant vegetative characteristics 41 4.1.1.1 Coleoptile Anthocyanin Coloration (CAC) 41 4.1.1.2 Flag leaf Anthocyanin Coloration of Auricles (FACA) 42 4.1.1.3 Frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves (FPRF) 42 4.1.1.4 Glaucosity of lower side of flag leaf blade (GF ) 43 4.1.1.5 Glaucosity of ear's neck (GN ) 43 4.1.1.6 Peduncle attitude (PA) 44 4.1.1.7 Straw pith in cross (SPC) 44 4.1.1.8 Plant growth habit (GH) 45 4.1.2 Spike Characteristics 47 4.1.2.1 Spike glaucosity (SG) 47 4.1.2.2 Spike shape (SS) 47 4.1.2.3 Spike density (SD) 48 4.1.2.4 Spike color (SC) 48 4.1.2.5 Awns color (AC) 49 4.1.2.6 Awns attitude (AA) 49 4.1.2.7 Awns roughness (AR) 50 4.1.2.8 Awns or scurs presence (ASP) 50 4.1.2.9 Lower glume shape (GS) 53 4.1.2.10 Lower glume external hairiness (GEH) 53 4.1.2.11 Lower glume shoulder width (GSW) 54 4.1.2.12 Lower glume shoulder shape (GSS) 54 4.1.2.13 Lower glume peak length (GPL) 54 4.1.2.14 Lower glume peak curvate (GPC) 55 IX 4.1.3 Grain characteristics 56 4.1.3.1 Grain color (GC) 56 4.1.3.2 Grain shape (GS) 57 4.2 Agronomic Traits Evaluation 57 4.2.1 Number of fertile tillers per plant (NT) 58 4.2.2 Plant Height (PTHT) 59 4.2.3 Spike length (SL) 59 4.2.4 Awns length (AL) 60 4.2.5 Days to ear emergence (DEE) 64 4.2.6 Days to maturity (DMAT) 65 4.2.7 Filling period (FP) 66 4.2.8 Leaf rust reaction (LRR) 67 4.2.9 Lodging reaction (LOD) 70 4.2.10 Number of spiklets per Spike (NSPS) 71 4.2.11 Number of grains per Spike (NGS) 74 4.2.12 Thousand Grain weight by grams (TGW) 75 4.2.13 Hectoliter Grain weight (HGW) 76 4.2.14 Biological Yield (BYLD) 80 4.2.15 Grain Yield (GYLD) 80 4.2.16 Straw Yield (SYLD) 81 4.3 Similarity matrix and Cluster Analysis 86 4.3.1 Similarity matrix 86 4.3.2 Cluster Analysis 87 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations 89 5.1 Conclusions 89 5.2 Recommendations 90 References 91 Appendix 107 ب الملخص X List of Tables No. Table Page 3.1 Wheat genotypes used in experiment 23 3.2 Locations of Experiment. 25 4.1 Identification wheat genotypes based on Coleoptile Anthocyanin Coloration (CAC), Flag leaf Anthocyanin Coloration of Auricles (FACA), Frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves (FPRF), Glaucosity of lower side of flag leaf blade (GF), Glaucosity of spike's neck (GN) Peduncle attitude (PA), Straw pith in cross (SPC) and Plant growth habit (GH). 46 4.2 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Spike glaucosity (SG), Spike shape (SS), Spike density (SD), and Spike color (SC) Awns color (AC), Awns attitude (AA), Awns roughness (AR) and Awns or scurs presence (ASP). 52 4.3 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Lower glume shape (GS), Lower glume external hairiness(GEH), Lower glume shoulder width (GSW), Lower glume shoulder shape (GSS) and Lower glume peak length (GPL). 55 4.4 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Lower glume peak shape (GPS), Lower glume peak curvate (GPC), Grain color (GC) and Grain shape (GS) 56 4.5 Analysis of variance of wheat genotypes based on Number of fertile tillers per plant (NT), Plant height (PTHT), Spike length (SL) and Awns length (AL). 62 4.6 Location and season mean of wheat genotypes based on Number of fertile tillers per plant (NT), Plant height (PTHT), Spike length (SL) and Awns length (AL). 62 4.7 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Number of fertile tillers per plant (NT) and Plant height (PTHT). 63 4.8 Identification and grouping of wheat genotypes based on Spike length (SL) and Awns length (AL). 64 4.9 Analysis of variance of wheat genotypes based on Days to ear emergence (DEE), days to maturity (DMAT) and filling period (FP). 68 4.10 Location and season mean of wheat genotypes based on days to ear emergence (DEE), days to maturity (DMAT) and filling period (FP). 68 4.11 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Days to 69 XI Spike emergence (DSE) and days to maturity (DMAT) and Filling period (FP). 4.12 Analysis of variance of wheat genotypes based on Leaf rust reaction (LRR) and Lodging reaction (LOD). 72 4.13 Location and season mean of wheat genotypes based on Leaf rust reaction (LRR) and Lodging reaction (LOD). 72 4.14 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Leaf rust reaction (LRR) and Lodging reaction (LOD). 73 4.15 Analysis of variance of wheat genotypes based on Number of spiklets per spike (NSPS), Number of grains per spike (NSS), Thousand Grain weight by grams (TGW) and Hectoliter Grain weight (HGW). 77 4.16 Location and season mean of wheat genotypes based on Number of spiklets per spike (NSPS), Number of grains per spike (NSS) and Thousand Grain weight by grams (TGW) 77 4.17 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Number of spiklets per spike (NSPS), Number of grains per spike (NSS) and Thousand Grain weight by grams (TGW). 78 4.18 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Hectoliter Grain weight (HGW) and Biological yield (BYLD). 79 4.19 Analysis of variance of wheat genotypes based on Biological yield (BYLD), Grain yield (GYLD) and Straw yield (SYLD). 83 4.20 Location and season mean of wheat genotypes based on Biological yield (BYLD), Grain yield (GYLD) and Straw yield (SYLD). 83 4.21 Identification of wheat genotypes based on Grain yield (GYLD) and Straw yield (SYLD). 84 4.22 Means of wheat landraces and introduced varieties based on all 16 agronomic traits in study. 85 4.22 Similarity coefficient among wheat cultivars based on Jaccard similarity index. 86 5.1 Kahatat genotype descriptors and means. 108 5.2 Heitia safra genotype descriptors and means. 109 5.3 Heitia beda 1 genotype descriptors and means. 110 5.4 Heitia beda 2 genotype descriptors and means. 111 5.5 Heitia soda genotype descriptors and means 112 5.6 Heitia genotype descriptors and means. 113 5.7 Debbiya genotype descriptors and means. 114 5.8 Soori genotype descriptors and means. 115 XII 5.9 Noorsi genotype descriptors and means. 116 5.10 Kahla genotype descriptors and means. 117 5.11 Nabeljamal genotype descriptors and means. 118 5.12 Horani 27 genotype descriptors and means. 119 5.13 Numra 8 genotype descriptors and means. 120 5.14 Cham 5 genotype descriptors and means. 121 5.15 Anbar genotype descriptors and means. 122 5.16 Decimal code used to quantify the growth stages in cereals 123 XIII List of Figures No. Figure Page 3.1 Selected Locations for Experiment trials in Palestine. 24 3.2 Categorization of straw pith in cross 29 3.3 Categorization of Plant growth habit 30 3.4 Categorization of Ear density 32 3.5 Categorization of lower glume shape 32 3.6 Categorization of lower glume shoulder width 32 3.7 Categorization of lower glume shoulder shape 33 3.8 Categorization of lower glume peak curvate. 34 3.9 Categorization of seed shape. 34 3.10 Estimating scale for rust infestation rate on vegetative parts of plant 37 3.13 Completely randomized block design of fifteen durum wheat genotype treatment and three replications. 40 4.1 UPGMA dendrogram of the genetic similarity of the fifteen wheat genotypes based on Jaccard similarity index (Jaccard, 1908) 87 XIV List of Abbreviations Abbreviation Full Name 2, 4- D 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid AFESD Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development DUS Distinctness, uniformity and stability FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GENSTAT General Statistics Analysis Program ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas MoA Ministry of Agriculture NARC National Agricultural Research Center RAPD Random amplified polymorphic DNA RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design UNDP United Nations Development Program UPOV Union for the Protection of new Varieties of Plants XV Morphological and Agronomic Traits Characterization of Local Durum Wheat (Triticum turgadum var. durum) Varieties Under Different Environmental Conditions in Palestine By Nasser Mohammad Mahmoud Abbadi Supervisor Dr. Hassan Abu- Qaoud Co- Supervisor Dr. Aziz Salameh Abstract Wheat (Triticum turgadum var. durum) is one of the most important field crops in Palestine with an area exceeds 220000 dunum and an average productivity of 136 kg/dunum that represents less than 45% of average world productivity. This shortage is due to the effect of unfavorable local environmental conditions for used cultivars. The introduction of high yielding and well adapted cultivars could be one of the best resolutions. The establishment of national breeding program will fascilate this task through the collection and evaluation available of genetic resources. Palestine is rich with wild relatives of durum wheat and many landraces are still grown in different regions in Palestine that could be considered as a genetic resurve. Little information is available about the phenotypic description and agronomic performance of these landraces. Moreover, synonyms and antinomy are existed among farmers, agronomists and scientists when dealing with wheat landraces. The need to identify landraces and common varieties is a priority. The published data on morphological and agronomic identification for genetic resources of durum wheat landraces in Palestine are very scarce and not sufficient. XVI The main objective of this investigation was to make clear identification of fifteen durum wheat varieties grown in Palestine through the characterization of the phenotypic traits and agronomic performance under different environmental conditions. The fifteen genotypes of durum wheat under the study included eleven local landraces (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia soda, Heitia, Debbiya, Soori, Noorsi, Kahla and Nabeljamal), and four introduced varieties (Horani 27, Numra 8, Cham 5 and Anbar). All studied genotypes were grown in randomized complete block design (RCBD) trials at five different climatic locations (Beit- Qad station, Tubas, Tulkarm station, Za'tara and Arroub station) during two growing seasons (2012- 2013 and 2013-2014). Forty morphological and agronomic traits were evaluated. Data were collected according to UPOV (Union for the Protection of new Varieties of Plants) guidelines and analyzed using GENSTAT statistical program. The results revealed the presence of high variations among the genotypes in thirty eight traits. Cluster analysis grouped genotypes in five main clusters according to relatedness and variation for all studied trait. The performance of landraces was not stable under different environmental conditions as most of them showed high straw but low grain yield as Nabeljamal variety (922 Kg/du straw and 201 Kg/du grain yield). The results obtained from this study led to a clear morphological identification of studied varieties, especially for local landraces at levels with synonyms and antinomy problem removed. Genetic variation revealed XVII that, local landraces could be considered as a primary step to launch a national breeding program for the development of new wheat cultivars adapted to harsh climatic conditions. 1 Chapter One Introduction Wheat (Triticum spp.) is one of the most important stable and economic food crops for more than one third of the world population. It is widely cultivated in the world with total area of 218 million hectares that represents about 17% of total planted area and production of 713 million tons, and productivity of 3.3 tons per hectare (FAO, 2013). Wheat contributes more calories and proteins to the world diet than any other cereal crops (Nimbal et al., 2009). In addition, it provides nearly 55% of carbohydrate and 20% of the food calories. Wheat grains contains 78.10% carbohydrate, 14.70% protein, 2.10% fat, 2.10% minerals and considerable proportions of vitamins (thiamine and vitamin-B) and minerals mainly zinc and iron (Kumar et al., 2011). Historically, it was documented that wheat was grown in the earliest sites of civilization and played a crucial role in humanity development by providing food to one third of people in those sites (Breiman and Graur, 1995). The origin of habitat for many crops including wheat was the region of Fertile Crescent which spread from Palestine and Jordan through Syria, Lebanon, south Turkey to north Iraq and Iran (Nevo, 1998). Wild wheat spread naturally in a broad spectrum of variability and many landraces are still grown and conserved in sito by local farmers. From this primary origin wheat was transmitted to new sites in the Mediterranean area and then to the rest of the world (Harlan, 1981). 2 Agriculture is an essential component of the Palestinian national, cultural and economic life. Palestinians have been pioneers in transmitting and disseminating agricultural techniques to several countries in the region and outside. In addition to its traditional significance for nations and states, agriculture is particularly important for Palestinians as it embodies their perseverance, confrontation and adherence to their land under the threat of confiscation and settlement activities. It also provides a refuge and a source of income and food supplies at times of crises (Agricultural Sector Strategy, MoA, Ramallah, Palestine, 2009). In addition, Palestine lies within the Fertile Crescent Center of diversity where wheat, barley, lentil, and several food and feed legumes and fruit trees have originated over the last 10,000 years. Cereals, food legumes, and fruit trees are major crop commodities contributing to food security of the Palestinian people (UNDP, 1998). Wheat is the major cultivated field crop in Palestine with more than 22000 hectares. The majority of wheat produced in West Bank was in Jenin, Tubas, and Ramallah districts. Durum wheat is the predominant type of wheat and met more than 70% of the total planted areas with wheat in West Bank, with about 96% is cultivated under rain fed system (PCBS, 2008). It was documented that, average productivity of wheat in West Bank was 1360 kg/ha (PCBS, 2008). This productivity is very low as compared to the world productivity which exceeded 3000 kg/he (FAO, 2008). This large difference in average production may be due to many determinant effects of biotic and abiotic conditions (Salimia and Atawnah, 2014). The well 3 known two ways to increase production are to increase the cultivated area which is very limited in the Occupied Palestinian areas or to increase the production per unit area which may be achieved by introducing high yielding varieties. One strategic approach towards the second goal might be through the establishment of a national breeding program that depends primarily on evaluating available genetic resources of wild relatives of wheat, cultivated landraces or local varieties, introducing lines and cultivars in order to domesticate high yielding and/ or stress tolerant cultivars (Gepts, 2006). The Palestinian farmers still grow old local durum wheat varieties (landraces) for several reasons. First, political situation, the accessibility to obtain new improved durum varieties with high yielding potential and good level of resistance to biotic and abiotic stress from regional and international research institutes is very difficult. Second, there is no active national breeding program for producing improved lines of durum wheat. Moreover, the landraces of durum wheat are common to farmer and adapted to local environmental harsh conditions (Jaradat, 2013). Therefore, the intensive use of introduced cultivars of durum wheat with high productivity and well agronomic performance threaten local varieties by losing and disappearing from the agricultural map by the Palestinian farmers. Consequently, many useful genes may disappear forever (Jaradat, 2013). The performance of cultivated landraces of wheat against biotic and abiotic stress conditions is not evaluated yet. 4 Pre-breeding activities such durum wheat landraces collection, characterization and agronomic performance evaluation are the first steps in the long way to establish a sufficient national wheat breeding program in Palestine. Several national institutes in Palestine already have collected various landraces of durum wheat from farmers and started either to conserve it in germplasm units or distribute these seeds to neighboring farmers without sufficient agronomic data. This situation lead to what called “synonyms phenomena”. Consequently, losses of many landraces of wheat could be form a solid genetic basis for future national breeding program. On other side, conserving the durum wheat without characterization is useless since many agronomic traits and a pool of useful genetic variation could be lost without any evaluation. Therefore, the characterization of the collected landraces of durum wheat and the evaluation of its agronomic performance under different climate conditions are necessary steps in Palestine and should be implemented prior to any breeding program. Characterization and identification of local varieties could be done using morphological, chemical or molecular methods (Salimia and Atawnah, 2014). Morphological methods are classical approaches that have been used since many years in the world by using various traits side by side with chemical and molecular methods which had been widely used in last decades. Few researches were conducted in Palestine on identification of local wheat varieties, and most of them based on molecular 5 characterization, while there is a big gap in using precious morphological traits. Objective The main objective of this investigation is to characterize the phenotypic and agronomic traits of fifteen durum wheat varieties (eleven landraces and four introduced) grown in different climatic conditions in Palestine. Study Significance and Justifications In spite of the importance of wheat landraces in Palestine as a genetic recourse for wheat improvement, little information is available about their description and field performance. Moreover, synonyms and antinomy are existed among farmers, agronomists and scientists when dealing with landraces. This situation may confuse and mislead scientists or agronomists and farmers. Therefore, the need to identify local landraces and varieties through clarification and discrimination work is urgent. The published data on previous identification for genetic resources of durum wheat in Palestine are very rare and this study could be a comprehensive work on the characterization of available landraces in terms of morphology and yield components. The study doesn't stand at agronomic traits evaluation but covers the morphological characterization as well. Using UPOV guidelines as international standards in morphological description of varieties will uniform the language of scientists, agronomists and genetic diversity specialists. This research is considered the first step in the long way to launch a national breeding program for durum wheat in Palestine. 6 Study outputs and applications: The expected specific outputs from this study include:  Create a clear morphological characterization for wheat landraces in Palestine with releasing a descriptive identification in the shape of a guide manual for the benefit of farmers, agronomists and researchers.  Evaluate the agronomic traits of wheat particularly the yield components under different climatic conditions as part of variety characteristics.  Study the genetic variation and relatedness between genotypes of durum wheat in Palestine in comparison with some improved or introduced genotypes based on morphological and agronomic characteristics and make it available for researchers to be used in future improving programs. 7 Chapter Two Literature Review 2.1 Taxonomy and Classification of wheat Wheat is an annual cereal grass belongs to the family Graminae (Poaceae) and to genus Triticum. This genus includes many wild and cultivated species that could be classified into four main groups according to the number of chromosomes, morphological and botanical characteristics (Chapman and Carter, 1976) These main wheat groups are: 1) Diploid group (1n= 7, 2n= 14): this group includes T. aegilepoids (wild single grain wheat), T. urothum (wild wheat), T. monococcum L. (single grain cultivated wheat in limited areas). 2) Tetraploid group (1n= 14, 2n= 28): includes Emmer ( two grain wild wheat) and the cultivated species T. dicoccum SHS, T. durum Desf., T. turgidum L., T. polonicum L., T. tauranicum Jak., T. persicum L., T. peramidale (Perc), T. timo pheevi Zhukov, T. palaeq cal chicum Men and T. carthicum Nev. 3) Hexaploid group (1n= 21, 2n= 42): Includes T. spelta L., T. macha Dek, T. compactum Host, T. sphaerococcum Pere, T. vavilovi Jacobs, T. aestivum and T. amplissifolium Zhuk. 4) Octaploid group (1n= 28, 2n= 56): this group includes only one species of wheat; T. fungicidum Zhuk. 8 2.2 Origin, domestication and distribution of wheat The domestication of wild wheat dates back to about 10000 years in the Near East. It is documented that wild einkorn (T. monococcum sp. aegilopoides) may have been domesticated to einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) in Karacadag Mountains region in southeast Turkey (Heun et al., 1997), where the wild form was cultivated also in parallel. Also the cultivated emmer (T. dicoccon) was registered in several regions in Syria dating back to 7500 BC. By the Bronze Age, These wild forms of wheat had been replaced by higher yielding and free threshing tetraploid and hexaploid wheats in cultivation, (Zohary and Hopf 1993). Currently, einkorn is only cultivated in small areas in the Mediterranean region (Perrino et al., 1996), while its wild form is spread naturally in some locations of that region (Zohary and Hopf 1993). Bread wheat (T. aestivum) appspikeed first in Transcaucasia, Southwest of Iran in the time that Aegilops tauschii ssp. strangulate, was predominant in the region and hybridized with cultivated emmer (T. dicoccon) to produce T. aestivum (Dvorak, 1998). The domesticated wheats as a result of man selection since 10000 years or more, have acquired a stockpile of genes for high productivity but with a narrow genetic base. In the time that wild relatives have acquired a larger reservoir of genes due to natural adaptation to a great diversity of environments during the evolutionary time. This wide pool in the wild 9 populations has remained largely unavailable, or at least unused by wheat breeders (Johnson and Walnes, 1977). At the time when domestication has occurred in the Karadagh Mountains, Turkey. Following a cross between tetraploid T. turgidum and diploid goat grass (Aegilops cylindrica Host), the resultant hexaploid (6x) bread wheat was disseminated around the Caucasian region, then around the Old World. These events, although resulted in wheat domestication, created genetic bottlenecks (Hammer et al., 1996), which excluded potentially adaptive alleles. More recently, the development of high yielding wheat varieties which caused a loss of much of the diversity in wheat landraces and old cultivars. A significant decrease of genetic diversity has been observed related to the replacement of bread wheat landraces by high yielding cultivars which appear to be associated with the loss of some quality traits such as protein content and glutenine quality (Distefeld et al., 2007). In general, domestication of wheat resulted in the enhancement changes in some of important traits of wheat such as: 1. An increase in grain size, associated with better germination and growth of seedlings in cultivated fields. 2. The development of non-shattering seed, which decreased natural seed dispersal and allowed humans to harvest and collect the seed with optimal timing (Willcox, 1998). Wheat Distribution After domestication, wheat cultivation was reported about 6000 years ago in the Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent. From that region it spread to the 10 Middle East, North Africa, Asia and Europe. Wheat spread to the Americans and Southern Africa around 1500 AD, and was introduced into Australia in 1790. Recently, wheat is the most widely and diversely cultivated food crop in the world. It is grown under different altitudes, from the sea level up to 4500m, which reflects its wide cultivability and adaptability (Harlan, 1981). 2.3 Wheat landraces or local varieties 2.3.1 Definition and synonyms Since 1890, tens of definitions had been proposed to describe the term "landrace" and its relative synonyms (Zeven, 1998). Teshome et al. (1997) defined landraces as "variable plant populations adapted to local agro climatic conditions, which are named, selected and maintained by the traditional farmers to meet their social economic, cultural and ecological needs. While Zeven (1998) proposed that landrace could be defined as "a variety with a high capacity to tolerate biotic and abiotic stress, resulting in a high yield stability and an intermediate yield level under a low input agricultural system". A number of synonyms for the term "landrace" have been used in literature. Zeven (1998) reported a number of synonyms for landrace as used in the literature, and their mutual relationship according to each author:  Race (Leng et al., 1962)  Local variety (Brandolini, 1969, Bellon & Brush, 1994) 11  Ecotype ( Brandolini, 1969)  Landrace population (Harlan, 1975)  Local population (Camussi, 1979)  Landrace (Zeven, 1986)  Traditional cultivar (Old field & Alcon, 1987)  Farmer variety (Bellon & Brush, 1994)  Farmer population (Cleveland et al., 1994) 2.3.2 General characteristics of landraces Thousands of years of cultivation combined with natural and human selection have resulted in the development of a wide diversity of genotypes in wheat species. Traditional management of wheat landraces by farmer contributed to the conservation of a considerable level of diversity. Therefore, a wheat landrace is not a genetically and phenotypically stable, distinct, and uniform unit (Morris and Heisey, 1998). The complexity genetic structure of wheat landraces populations may arise from the number of different homozygotes and the occurrence and frequency of heterozygotes in these populations. Therefore, characterization of the population structure of wheat landraces is critical to identify and interpret correctly the correlation between their functional and molecular diversity (Brown, 2000). Wheat landraces as compared to modern cultivars, with relatively higher biomass, may don't develop larger root dry mass, but in increased ratio of root mass to penetrates deeper in soil profiles, increased ability to obtain moisture from those depths, and higher water use efficiency. In addition, 12 their higher concentration of soluble carbohydrates in the stem shortly after anthesis ensures adequate translocation of photo assimilates to the developing grains. These properties enable wheat landraces to face harsh conditions especially season- late drought by early maturation (Ayed et al., 2010). Some wheat landraces have a unique characteristic of facultative growth habit which provides flexibility of sowing either in the fall as a winter crop or, after the failure of the crop in winter, again in the spring. Under limited nitrogen availability in soil, wheat landraces with a taller growth habit and lower harvest index have the ability to absorb and translocate more nitrogen into the grain than modern varieties (Geneç et al., 2005). Because wheat landraces have been developed mostly in low available nutrient environments, they represent a source of genetic variation for selection of varieties adapted to low fertilizer input cropping systems (Distefeld et al., 2007; Koshgoftarmanesh et al., 2010). 2.3.3 Importance of wheat landraces in agro-systems As long time of wheat history, farmers were behind the conservation and development of wheat genetic diversity (Zeven, 2000). The landraces and old cultivars they developed can be considered as evolutionary links between wild emmer wheat, the wild progenitor of all domesticated wheat, and advanced wheat cultivars. Often landraces have remained undisturbed over decades as they are well adapted to the selection pressure coming from specific eco-geographical structures (Nevo, 1998). Given their longstanding adaptation to specific environments, landraces may have developed a broad spectrum of resistance to various biotic and abiotic 13 threats, which can make them a useful resource to breed new cultivars in which high yield is combined with stress resistance. Nowadays, many local landraces have been disappearing due to retreating of traditional farming systems, genetic erosion, or even the aging or exodus of rural population, and environmental degradation (Mercer and Peralis, 2010), that have led to the extinction of many local landraces. As a consequence, the disappearance of most of unique cereal biodiversity and the information about landraces and traditional cultivars are now very rare. Several reports estimated that about 75% of the genetic diversity of crop plants had been lost in the last century (Hammer et al., 1996; Witcombe et al., 1996). This dangerous disappearance of these valuable genetic resources results in a severe threat to the world's long-term food security. In this case, there is an urgent need to identify, preserve and utilize landrace genetic resources as a safeguard against an unpredictable future is evident. 2.3.4 Conservation and utilization of wheat landrace Through the period 1970 -1990 much of landraces across the world has been collected and is being conserved in long-term national and international gene banks (Frizon et al., 2011). In other side, a small portion of this diversity is being conserved and used on-farm where it continues to evolve (Brush and Meng, 1998). Both of these conservation methods have its advantages and limitations. On-farm conservation is considered as a sustainable management of genetic diversity of landraces and local varieties, it provides a natural approach for continuous development and helps accumulation of agronomic traits for 14 adaptation of variety to specific eco-geographical and matching the requirements of farmers. On-farm conservation of landraces, as many reports indicated, is one of the most important recent issues in plant genetic resources management (Le Boulch et al., 1994; Kebebew et al., 2001). Farmers continue to grow and conserve and develop a wheat landrace if it meets their production and consumption needs. That means their on-farm conservation and continued utilization of landraces is determined by the cost and benefits these landraces to farmer. They maintain crop landraces if these are of high economic, cultural, social value, or even ecological reasons (Brush and Meng, 1998). 2.3.5 Landraces and the Future of Wheat Diversity Nowadays, due to modern revolution in agriculture, wheat landraces have been largely replaced, in their centers of diversity by monocultures of pure genotypes represents high yielding modern cultivars. This replacement resulted in significant loss of genetic diversity for quality traits and resistance or tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses; whereas, the pure wheat genotypes lack the wide adaptation found in landraces. The heterogeneity provided by diversity of populations of wheat landraces will decrease abiotic and biotic stresses within cropping systems (Bonman et al., 2007). One practical strategy to improve yield and yield stability is to develop new varieties from wheat landrace populations, especially under stress and climate change conditions. Or just enhancement of productivity and stability of deteriorated landraces which could be achieved through 15 continuous selection within original landraces population under the harsh conditions, to exploit the constantly released useful adaptive variation (Ehdaie and Waines, 1989). 2.3.6 Characterization and evaluation of wheat landraces studies Several studies were conducted to evaluate the performance of landrace of wheat or to determine the genetic diversity. Bechere et al. (1996) studied the variation among 27 Ethiopian populations of durum wheat using phenotypic characters and concluded the presence of wide variability in most studied traits. Similar results were discovered in twelve land races populations in Jordan conducted by Rawashdeh et al. (2007) using phenotypic characters. In Morocco agro- morphological variability in a set of durum wheat germplasm collection indicated that thousands kernel weight and plant height presented the highest coefficient of variation (Zarkti, 2012). Elings and Nachit (1991) also studied 185 populations of durum wheat landraces collected from four different climatic zones in Syria by agronomic and morphological characterization and reported that these populations were categorized into clusters according to geographic distribution. Also, variation of phenotypic description in spikes of tetraploid durum wheat landraces in Oman using 14 qualitative and 17 quantitative traits revealed a high variability for quantitative traits more than qualitative traits (Alkhanajari et al., 2005). 16 2.3.7 Studying wheat landraces in Palestine Similar studies in Palestine are limited especially for morphological characterization of durum wheat landraces, although some publications dealt with evaluation of few agronomic traits for some local landraces. Atawnah (2013) evaluated growth performance, yield components and genetic variation in six landraces genotypes and showed a significant variation in most of studied traits, thus the dindogram cleared the relations among genotypes. Some other studies used molecular tools for this purpose (Sawalha, et al., 2008) by studying genetic diversity in wheat landraces in Palestine using RAPD markers in comparison to phenotypic classification indicated a level of genetic diversity and similarities expressed in clusters of the landraces analyzed. In another study RAPD method was used to estimate genetic diversity in ten durum wheat genotypes cultivated in Palestine both landraces and commercial, although landraces were classified in one cluster there was a wide variation between them (Alfares and Abu- Qaoud, 2012). 2.4 Growth stages of wheat Growth is a complex process in which different organs developing, growing and dying in overlapping sequences and it is easier to think of it as a series of growth stages. There are several scales or developmental codes that describe visible growth stages of wheat. Hauns’s scale can be used particularly for defining and description of vegetative growth stages (Haun, 1973). Feeke’s scale provides a good description for both vegetative and reproductive stages 17 (Large, 1954). However, Zadoks’ scale is the most comprehensive and easiest to use in practice (Zadoks, 1974). It describes all stages of the cereal growth cycle, including characteristics not considered in other scales. This scale has 10 main growth stages, labeled 0 to 9, which describe the crop; and each main growth stage can be further subdivided and described using a second digit, labeled 0 to 9 too (Table 5.16). 2.5 Characterization and variety identification of wheat Variety identification is a very important process used for purity assessment crop varieties which is a primary demand in seed multiplication, certification and it is a necessary tool for protection of new breeder lines and new varieties through the multiple stages. It is also of special importance when we deal with old deteriorated varieties and local land races that exposed to danger of extinction and genetic loss. In general, there are deferent methods for making characterization and variety identification, including morphological, chemical and molecular methods (Mansing, 2010). 2.5.1Morphological Characterization A wide range of morphological distinctness between various genotypes was used in varietal identification which was observed in seed, seedling and plant (Mansing, 2010). 2.5.1.1 Seed characteristics Many morphological traits of seeds as seed shape, size, color, seed weight, seed germ width, seed crease and brush hair length are useful characters for varietal identification of wheat (Mansing, 2010). 18 Paukens (1975) reported that the seed color (white, light yellow, bright yellow, dark yellow and red), length (short, medium and long), width (narrow, medium and wide) and thickness (thin, medium and thick) were used for determining the cultivar trueness and purity in maize, while Sivasubramanian and Ramakrishnan (1978) studied the distinctness in rice cultivars based on seed, seedlings and chemical tests and expressed the color of coleoptile, color and shape of the seed were found to be of considerable diagnostic value. 2.5.1.2 Seedling characteristics Sivasubramanian and Ramakrishnan (1978) reported that seedling characters like coleoptile color (purple to colorless) and ratio of primary leaf to coleoptile length were used for identification of rice varieties. Hoson (1984) differentiated between dwarf and tall cultivars of rice and maize based on coleoptile length growth. Mansing (2010) reported Wide variations in mesocotyl length and pigmentation of coleoptile among hill rice cultivars. Miyagawa (1984) classified 86 Japanese and 14 scented rice cultivars based on mesocotyl and coleoptile length. Lirinde (1986) and Terao (1986) classified the rice genotypes based on seedling characters as seedling length, coleoptile, sheath color and mesocotyl length. 2.5.1.3 Morphological characters of plant Mustafa et al. (1998) examined the seedling characteristics of nine different bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties, several variables regarding seedling size and germination characteristics were analyzed using 19 canonical correlation analysis. Significantly correlated first canonical variate pairs indicated that the variables within each set such as coleoptile length, shoot length and fresh weight within size set, and emergence rate index and germination percentage can be regarded as main factors for vigorous wheat seedlings. Elzevir and Aluizio (1999) studied seven characters of six bread varieties as plant height, days to emerge of first spikelet, number of grain per spike, spike length, spike shape, spike waxiness and spike density for varietal characterization. Karagoz et al. (2006) characterized 112 wild wheat (Triticum aegilops L.) and 12 population of cultivated wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in order to study their agromorphological characteristics (plant height, days to heading, growth habit, plant foliage color, number of tillers, flag leaf waxiness of blade, flag leaf length, flag leaf width, awns attitude and spike length) and variation among the populations. Rehman et al. (2006) evaluated some plant morphological characters (plant height, flag leaf length, flag leaf width, flag leaf attitude, flag leaf hairs on auricle, flag leaf waxiness of blade, spikelet number, spike length, spike density, peduncle waxiness, peduncle length and awns presence) of four bread wheat varieties. Based on the results it was possible to identified varieties from each other. Haljak et al. (2008) studied ten morphological characters (anthocyanin colouration of auricles of flag leaf, hairiness of auricles of flag leaf, flag leaf width, plants with recurved flag leaves, glaucosity of sheath of flag 20 leaf, flag leaf waxiness of sheath, glaucosity of spike, peduncle waxiness, spike waxiness, spike density and peduncle length) of nine winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and suggested that these morphological characters are best for distinctness of the varieties. Naghavi et al. (2009) evaluated genetic variation of 96 durum wheat landraces and cultivars using morphological and protein markers. They studied plant morphological characters as days to heading, flag leaf waxiness of blade, flag leaf length, flag leaf width, spikelet per spike, test weight, plant height, peduncle waxiness, peduncle attitude, peduncle length and spike length. 2.5.2 Chemical characterization The components of the seed react with the alkali to produce color which intensity could be used in characterization of wheat cultivars. Many chemicals tests were used in seed variety identification; NaOH test is useful in identification of yellow and red color seeds. Studies on characterization of cultivars based on response of seed and seedling to various chemicals as phenol test, peroxidase enzyme activity, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide test and GA3 etc., offer wide variability and can be used in characterization of genotypes(Mansing, 2010) 2.5.2.1 Phenol test A rapid chemical technique for identification of different seeds, it employs phenol to cause different color reaction in seeds, according to these test 21 varieties can be classified. The test depends on the enzyme present in seed coat. Phenol color reaction was first reported for varietal classification in wheat by Chemelar and Mostovoj (1938) and has been accepted as a standard method for testing of wheat by International Seed testing Association ISTA (Mansing, 2010). 2.5.2.2 Peroxidase enzyme activity test The presence of peroxidase enzyme in the seed coat of wheat genotypes was used as criteria for distinguishing the genotypes. The test is easy, but time consuming and tedious. Mckee (1973) suggested that barley varieties can be separated into as high or low in peroxidase activity by soaking into 0.1 % solution of hydrogen peroxidase for ten minutes saturated with benzidine dihydrochloride as a technique to distinguish different seed varieties. 2.5.2.3 Potassium hydroxide test Wheat genotypes can be differentiated based on the color pattern obtained by the reaction of chemical to seeds with the secondary metabolites. Test is simple, easy and reproducible. Mckee (1973) suggested that 5 or 10 % potassium hydroxide solution could be useful for separating white grain wheat varieties from red grain wheat varieties. 2.5.2.4 Sodium hydroxide test Simple, quick, and cheap test, based on the secondary metabolites present in the seed coat react and produce distinct colors (Vanderburg and Vanzwol, 1991). 22 2.5.2.5 Seedling growth response to GA3 Plant growth regulators influence plant growth by affecting the mobilization of food reserves to different plant parts. The effect of the growth regulators may vary in different cultivars which may be classified based on their response in terms of increase or decrease in growth of root, shoot and coleoptile length etc. The effect of growth regulators on seedling growth behavior has been used for characterization of cereals like wheat and rice (Laloriya and Naqvi, 1961; Gupta, 1985). 2.5.3 Molecular marker Molecular methods were used for the assessment of genetic diversity within and between plant populations using various laboratory-based techniques such as allozyme or DNA analysis, which measure levels of variation directly. Molecular markers may or may not correlate with phenotypic expression of a genomic trait but, they offer a lot of advantages over conventional, phenotype-based methods as they are stable and detectable in all tissues regardless of growth, differentiation, development or defense status of the cell. Additionally, they are not affected by environmental conditions (Linda et al., 2009). 23 Chapter Three Materials and Methods 3.1 Plant Material Fifteen genotypes of durum wheat were used in the trials (eleven local landraces and four introduced varieties). Local wheat landraces were obtained from Genetic Recourses Unit at National Agricultural Research Cintre (NARC) (Table 3.1). Table 3.1 Wheat genotypes used in experiment No. G en o ty p e C a teg o ry S o u rce L o n g itu d e L a titu d e A ltitu d e (m ) 1 Kahatat Landrace Tayasir- Tubas 35.395 32.334 352 2 Hetia safra Landrace Turmusa'ya- Ramalla 35.303 32.256 758 3 Heitia beda 1 Landrace Tayasir- Tubas 35.395 32.334 352 4 Heitia beda 2 Landrace Tamun-Tubas 35.400 32.233 311 5 Heitia soda Landrace Qabalan 35.285 32.094 573 6 Heitia Landrace Abu falah- Ramalla 35.294 32.007 770 7 Debbiya Landrace Kufrmalik- Ramalla 35.305 31.987 812 8 Soori Landrace Rantis- Ramalla 35.340 32.028 744 9 Noorsi Landrace Mazra'a- Ramalla 35.263 32.000 769 10 Kahla Landrace Sawia- Nablus 35.261 32.097 511 11 Nabeljamal Landrace Silwad- Ramalla 35.234 31.994 676 12 Horani 27 Introduced Syria 13 Numra 8 Introduced Tubas 35.386 32.323 450 14 Cham 5 Introduced ICARDA-Syria 15 Anbar Introduced Local market 3.2 Experimental Locations and Seasons The experiment was conducted at five locations (Fig.3.1) in five different governorates in Palestine (Table 3.1) in two growing seasons (2012-2013 24 and 2013-2014). The locations were: Beit Qad Agricultural station, Tubas, Tulkarm agricultural station, Za'tara village, and Al-aruob Agricultural station. In each site, 1.5 dunum was allocated for the experiment. All morphological characteristics were measured at two locations (Beit- Qad and Tubas) for one growing season (2012- 2013). Evaluation of agronomical traits was conducted in the two growing seasons. Figure 3.1 Selected Locations for Experiment trials in Palestine. 25 Table.3.2: Locations of Experiment. L o ca tio n G o v ern o ra te E lev a tio n (m ) R a in fa ll (m m ) 2 0 1 2 -2 0 1 3 R a in fa ll (m m ) 2 0 1 3 -2 0 1 4 A n n u a l m ea n R a in fa ll (m m ) A n n u a l m ea n tem p era tu re (C °) L o n g itu d e L a titu d e L o ca tio n to p o g ra p h y Beit Qad Jenin 144 436 233.5 414.4 20.3 35.345 32.474 Inner plain Tubas Tubas 493 388 238.5 431.2 20.4 35.386 32.323 Hilly Tulkarm Tulkarm 61 720 460 602.4 18.9 35.019 32.316 Coastal plain Za'tara Bethlehem 617 320 310 340 22 35.273 31.675 Eastern foothill Arrub Hebron 812 550 485.2 632.3 15.5 35.131 31.621 Mountain 3.3 Field preparation Fields in different locations were prepared according to the recommended applications, Essential fertilizations were applied. Phosphate was added to the soil as Super phosphate 25% (20 kg/dunum). Nitrogen was added in the form of Ammonium sulphate 21% (12.5kg/dunum). 3.4 Sowing. Seeds were sown manually. Each plot consisted of 6 rows 2 meters long with 30cm spacing between rows, 10 grams of seeds were sown in each row, seeding rate was 15kg/dunum. 3.5 Cultural Practices 3.5.1 Weed control Weeds were controlled by Alber Super (2,4-D) application. The dosage was (150ml/ dunum). Spray was done during15 th -30th , January, followed by hand weeding at the second half of March. 26 3.5.2 Additive fertilization 10 kg/ dunum of Ammonium Sulphate fertilizer (21% nitrogen) were spread manually during growing season (February) before expected rain at tillering stage. Fields were supplementary irrigated three times (during February and March) at 2013-2014 growing season by 30 mm each time (90 mm in total). 3.5.3 Harvesting and threshing One square meter from the middle of each experimental plot was harvested manually after full maturity, tied and labeled, dried for two days under shade then weighed for biological yield and threshed using experimental threshing machine. 3.6 Measured Parameters 3.6.1 Morphological Characterization Morphological traits characterization was done according to the guidelines described in the instructions of the International Union for the Protection of new Varieties of Plants (UPOV) (Test Guidelines) which elaborates the principles contained in the General Introduction (document TG/1/3) for the examination of distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS) and, in particular, to identify appropriate characteristics for the examination of DUS and production of harmonized variety descriptions (UPOV, 2012). The morphological characterization parameters are described as follows: 27 3.6.1.1 Plant vegetative characteristics 3.6.1.1.1 Coleoptile Anthocyanin Coloration (CAC) 100 seeds were placed on moistened filter paper in a Petri dish until germination, after the coleoptiles have reached a length of about 1 cm in darkness they were placed in artificial light for sixteen hours a day (daylight equivalent), 12,000 to 15,000 lux continuously for 3 - 4 days, with incubation temperature at 20oC, data were recorded when coleoptiles were fully developed (about 1 week from the start) at stage 09-11 (Zadoks, 1974). The presence of anthocyanin coloration on coleoptiles was assessed and reported as absent or very weak, weak, medium, strong and very strong. 3.6.1.1.2 Flag leaf Anthocyanin Coloration of Auricles (FACA) Anthocyanin coloration of auricles was assessed visually (stage 55-59 on Zadoks scale) according to their frequency and intensity within whole plot and categorized as absent or very weak, weak, medium, strong and very strong. 3.6.1.1.3 Frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves (FPRF) Recurved flag leaves plants were assessed visually at (stage 50-51) according to their frequency (percentage) within whole plot and categorized as absent or very low (0-20%), low (21-40%), medium (41- 60%), high (61-80%) and very high (81-100%). 28 3.6.1.1.4 Glaucosity of lower side of flag leaf blade (GF ) The thickness of the waxy layer on lower side of the flag leaf blade was assessed by touching flag leaves of ten plants selected randomly between fingers (stage 55-65), average assessment was scored as absent or very weak, weak, medium, strong and very strong . 3.6.1.1.5 Glaucosity of spike's neck (GN ) The density of the waxy layer on spikes neck was assessed (stage 60-69) by touching spikes neck of ten plants selected randomly between fingers. Average assessment was scored as absent or very weak, weak, medium, strong and very strong. 3.6.1.1.6 Peduncle attitude (PA) Ten spikes were picked randomly at maturity (stage 90-92) with its peduncle from each plot. Peduncles were observed visually for attitude and grouped as straight, medium and crooked. 3.6.1.1.7 Straw pith in cross (SPC) Ten plants from whole plot were selected randomly at maturity (stage 90- 92). The pith in cross section was observed half way between base of spike and stem node below. Assessment was reported for mean of stems as thin, medium and thick (Figure 3.2). 29 1 3 5 Thin Medium Thick Fig.3.2: Categorization of straw pith in cross 3.6.1.1.8 Plant growth habit (GH) Ten plants from each plot were observed randomly, growth habit was assessed visually from the attitude of the leaves and tillers at tillering stage. The angle formed by the outer leaves and the tillers with an imaginary middle axis was observed and the average score were registered as erect, semi erect, intermediate, semi prostrate and prostrate (Fig. 3.3). Fig.3.3: Categorization of Plant growth habit 3.6.1.2 Spike Characteristics 10 main spikes from each plot were selected randomly; the following characteristics were measured as described below. 30 3.6.1.2.1 Spike glaucosity (EG) The density of waxy layer was assessed by touching spike between fingers (after spike fully appeared), average assessment was scored as absent or very weak, weak, medium, and strong. 3.6.1.2.2 Spike shape (SS) Spike shape was observed visually and grouped as tapering, parallel sided, semi clavate, clavate and fusiform. 3.6.1.2.3 Spike density (SD) Spike density was determined by counting the number of spikelets and then dividing the number by the spike length. The higher ratio indicated the higher density. They were categorized as lax, medium and dense (Fig. 3.4). 3 5 7 Lax Medium Dense Fig.3.4: Categorization of Spike density 3.6.1.2.4 Spike color (SC) Color of spike was assessed (at maturity) and registered as white, slightly colored and strongly colored. 31 3.6.1.2.5 Awns color (AC) Color of spike awns was assessed (at maturity) and scored as white, light brown, medium purple and dark purple. 3.6.1.2.6 Awns attitude (AA) Awns attitude (rate of awns spreading against spikes main axis) was observed visually (at maturity) and grouped as oppressed, medium and spreading. 3.6.1.2.7 Awns roughness (AR) Awns roughness was checked by touching by hand (at maturity) and grouped as smooth, medium and rough. 3.6.1.2.8 Awns or scurs presence (ASP) Awns or scurs presence was observed visually (at maturity) and scored as awns and scurs absent, awns present and scurs present. 3.6.1.2.9 Lower glume shape (GS) Lower glume shape was observed on mid third of spikes (at maturity)and classified as ovoid, medium oblong and narrow oblong (Fig. 3.5). 32 1 2 3 Ovoid Medium oblong Narrow oblong Fig.3.5: Categorization of lower glume shape 3.6.1.2.10 Lower glume external hairiness (GEH) Hairs on external surface of lower glume were observed on mid third of spikes (at maturity) and classified as absent, short, medium and long. Note: Observations were made with a hand lens (x10 magnification). 3.6.1.2.11 Lower glume shoulder width (GSW) Lower glume shoulder width was observed on mid third of spikes (at maturity) and classified as narrow, medium and broad (Fig 3.6). 3 5 7 Narrow Medium Broad Fig.3.6: Categorization of lower glume shoulder width 33 3.6.1.2.12 Lower glume shoulder shape (GSS) Lower glume shoulder shape was observed on mid third of spikes (at maturity) and classified as sloping, rounded, straight, elevated and elevated with 2nd peak (Fig. 3.7). 1 2 3 4 5 Sloping Rounded Straight Elevated Elevated with a 2nd beak Fig.3.7: Categorization of lower glume shoulder shape 3.6.1.2.13 Lower glume peak length (GPL) Lower glume beak length was observed on mid third of spikes (at maturity) and classified as very short, short, medium and long (Figure 3.8). 3.6.1.2.14 Lower glume peak curvate (GPC) Lower glume beak shape was observed on mid third of spikes (at maturity) and classified as absent, weak, moderate and strong (Fig. 3.8). 34 1 3 5 7 Absent Weak Moderate Strong Fig.3.8: Categorization of lower glume peak curvate. 3.6.1.3 Grain characteristics 100 grains were selected randomly, the following characteristics were observed as bellow. 3.6.1.3.1 Grain color (GC) Grain color was observed and scored as whitish, reddish and dark. 3.6.1.3.2 Grain shape (GS) Grain shape was observed in dorsal view and scored as slightly elongated, moderately elongated, strongly elongated and extremely elongated (Fig. 3.9). 1 2 3 slightly elongated moderately elongated Strongly elongated Fig.3.9: Categorization of grain shape. 35 3.6.2. Agronomic Traits Evaluation 3.6.2.1 Field growth performance 3.6.2.1.1 Number of fertile tillers per plant (NT) Ten plants from each plot were selected randomly before maturity, fertile tillers (tillers that contain grains) were counted and mean was recorded as low (1-2 fertile tillers), medium (3-4 fertile tillers) and high (more than 4 fertile tillers). 3.6.2.1.2 Plant height (PTHT) Plant length was measured at maturity including stem, spike and awns. The length was taken from the base of the plant to the tip of the highest awn. The genotypes were grouped as very short (< 60 cm), short (60-75 cm), medium (75.1-90 cm), long (90.1-115 cm) and very long (> 115 cm). 3.6.2.1.3 Spike length (EL) Ten spikes were picked randomly from each plot at maturity, spike length was measured (excluding awns) and the average was recorded. Genotypes were grouped on spike length base as very short (<50 mm), medium (short (50-60 mm), medium (60.1-80 mm), long (80.1-110 mm) and very long (> 110 mm). 3.6.2.1.4 Awns length (AL) Ten spikes were picked randomly from each plot at maturity, awns length was measured and the average was recorded. Genotypes were grouped on 36 awns length base as very short (<50 mm), short (50-80 mm), medium (80.1-100 mm), long (100.1-120 mm) and very long (> 120 mm). 3.6.2.1.5 Days to spike emergence (DSE) Date of spike emergence was scored when the first spikelet visible on spikes of 50% of the plants, it was converted to days by counting the days from planting date up to date of 50% spikes emergence, then genotypes were categorized as early (<110 days), medium (110- 120 days) and late (> 120 days). 3.6.2.1.6 Days to maturity (DMAT) Date of 50% of plants within plot mature (ready to harvest by suitable moisture content estimated manually in field), Days from sawing to maturity of 50% of spikes was recorded, genotypes were grouped into three categories as early (< 164 days), medium (164-174 days) and late (> 174 days). 3.6.2.1.7 Filling period (FP) Filling period is the period (in days) between spike emergence and maturity. Genotypes were grouped into three categories as short (< 50 days), medium (50-55 days) and late (> 55 days). 3.6.2.2 Reaction to rust and lodging 3.6.2.2.1 Leaf rust reaction (LRR) Twenty plants were taken randomly at the stage of filling, natural infestation with leaf rust disease was assessed visually, infestation ratio was 37 recorded in a scale 1-5 (1= no symptoms, 2= symptoms covers less than 30% of plant, 3= symptoms covers 30-50% of plant, 4= symptoms covers 51-75% of plant, 5= symptoms covers more than 75% of plant (Figure 3.10), genotypes were grouped on average score as: Resistant: 1.00-1.99 Semi resistant: 2.00-2.99 Semi susceptible: 3.00-3.99 Susceptible: 4.00-5.00 Fig.1.10: estimating scale for rust infestation rate on vegetative parts of plant (Peterson et al 1948). 4.6.2.2.2 Lodging reaction (LOD) Percentage of lodged (bending or breaking of lower culm internodes) plants in whole plot was assessed visually in a scale (1-5), (1= lodged plants less than 10%, 2= lodged plants 11-30%, 3= lodged plants 31-50%, 4= lodged plants 51-75%, 5= lodged plants more than 75%, genotypes were grouped on average score as : 38 Resistant: 1.00-1.99 Semi resistant: 2.00-2.99 Semi susceptible: 3.00-3.99 Susceptible: 4.00-5.00 3.6.2.3 Yield performance 3.6.2.3.1 Number of spiklets per spike (NSPS) Ten spikes were harvested randomly from each plot, spiklets on each spike were counted, mean was recorded, genotypes were grouped into three categories as low (< 20 spiklets), medium (20-22 spiklets) and high (> 22 spiklets). 3.6.2.3.2 Number of grains per spike (NGS) Ten spikes were harvested randomly from each plot, threshed separately, grains within each spike were counted and means were recorded, genotypes were grouped into three categories as low (< 46 grains), medium (46-55 grains) and high (> 55 grains). 3.6.2.3.3 Thousand Grain weight by grams (TGW) Randomly 1000 grains were collected from the bulk for each plot yield and weighed. Three replicates were scored and mean was recorded, different genotypes were grouped into three categories as low (< 40 grams), medium (40-50 grams), and high (> 50 grams). 3.6.2.3.4 Hectoliter grain weight (HGW) Three samples of grains from each plot yield were taken randomly, Hectoliter grain weight (weight of 100 liters volume of grain by kilograms) was estimated for each sample using a special machine (EASI- WAY 39 Hectoliter test weight machine, Manufactured by FARM- TEC), genotypes were grouped into three categories as low (< 75), medium (75-78) and high (> 78). 3.6.2.3.5 Biological Yield (BYLD) One square meter was allocated in the middle of plot, all plants within this area were harvested manually ten centimeters above ground level, plants were tied into bundles and weighed, weight was modified to one dunum. Genotypes were grouped into three categories as following: Low : < 550 Kg/dunum Medium: 550-1000 Kg/dunum High : > 1000 Kg/dunum 3.6.2.3.6 Grain Yield (GYLD) The harvested plants of one square meter from middle of plot were threshed using experimental machine and grains weighed, weight was modified to one dunum. Genotypes were grouped into three categories as following: Low : < 250 Kg/dunum Medium: 250-350 Kg/dunum High : > 350 Kg/dunum 3.6.2.3.7 Straw Yield (SYLD) Straw weight was calculated by subtracting grain weight above (GYLD) from biological yield (BYLD), weight was modified to one dunum. Three replicates /plot was measured, genotypes were grouped into three categories as following: Low : < 300 Kg/dunum Medium: 300-650Kg/dunum 40 High : > 650 Kg/dunum. 3.7 Experimental Design and Data analysis Completely randomized block design (RCBD) was used in the trial with fifteen wheat genotypes (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia soda, Heitia, Debbiya, Soori, Noorsi, Kahla, Nabeljamal, Horani 27, Numra 8, Cham 5 and Anbar) in three replications (Figure 3.11), plot area was 4 square meters. Data were analyzed using GENSTAT program, 12th edition. Analysis of variance for genotype, environment, year, genotype * environment, genotype* year and genotype* environment* year was made. Cluster analysis was made by a dendogram (Figure 4.1) using UPGMA based on Jaccard genetic similarity index (Jaccard, 1908). Replication 1 H ei ti a b ed a 2 N o o rs i A n b ar H ei ti a so d a D eb b iy a H ei ti a sa fr a N ab el ja m al C h am 5 H ei ti a b ed a 1 H o ra n i 2 7 K ah at at S o o ri K ah la N u m ra 8 H ei ti a Replication 2 N u m ra 8 N ab el ja m al D eb b iy a N o o rs i H ei ti a b ed a 2 H ei ti a b ed a 1 H o ra n i 2 7 H ei ti a sa fr a K ah at at S o o ri A n b ar H ei ti a H ei ti a so d a C h am 5 K ah la Replication 3 K ah at at H ei ti a C h am 5 H ei ti a b ed a 1 N ab el ja m al H o ra n i 2 7 S o o ri A n b ar K ah la H ei ti a so d a N o o rs i N u m ra 8 D eb b iy a H ei ti a b ed a 2 H ei ti a sa fr a Figure 3.13. Completely randomized block design of fifteen durum wheat genotype treatment and three replications. 41 Chapter Four Results and Discussion 4.1 Morphological Characterization Twenty four characters were studied covering morphological traits of wheat plant at different growth stages and plant parts including intact plant, spikes and grains, this evaluation were conducted at two locations (Beit- Qad and Tubas) for one growing season (2012-2013). 4.1.1 Plant vegetative characteristics 4.1.1.1 Coleoptile Anthocyanin Coloration (CAC) Coleoptile Anthocyanin coloration varied among the 15 genotypes (Table 4.1). Two genotypes showed absent or very weak coloration (Kahatat and Debbiya), other nine showed weak coloration (Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia soda, Heitia, Noorsi, Kahla, Horani 27 and Cham 5), and two genotypes (Soori and Nabeljamal) were Medium colored and the rest two (Numra 8 and Anbar) had strong color. The intensity of pigment in plant organs is genetically controlled and is also affected by abiotic stress mainly drought and salinity under which genes responded for anthocyanin production are activated (Tereshchenko, et al. 2012). This study showed a clear variation among genotypes under investigation in terms of the presence of the anthocyanin pigmentation in coleoptiles at the beginning of growth. It was weak in most of local varieties, medium in two of them and strong in two improved varieties. The 42 results were obtained under laboratory conditions without stress which indicates that the pigmentation appeared clearly due to weak stimulation for the pigmentation genes. Khoufi et al. (2012) characterized the variation in some wheat varieties using coleoptiles anthocyanin coloration as an effective trait to distinguish between genetically apparent genotypes. 4.1.1.2 Flag leaf Anthocyanin Coloration of Auricles (FACA) There was a low variation among the studied wheat genotypes based on flag leaf anthocyanin coloration of auricles (Table 4.1). Twelve of them were weak colored (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 2, Heitia, Debbiya, Soori, Noorsi, Kahla, Nabeljamal, Horani 27, Numra8 and Anbar) and three genotypes were medium colored (Heitia beda 1, Heitia soda and Cham 5). This result may indicate that the two local genotypes (Heitia beda 1 and Heitia soda) have stress tolerance genes, while Cham 5 is a drought resistant variety and recommended to be cultivated in semi dry zones (ICARDA, 1995). Similar results were observed by Haljak et al. (2008) in which winter wheat cultivars were grouped into weak, medium and strong colored. 4.1.1.3 Frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves (FPRF) Table 4.1 shows a moderate variation among the studied genotypes according to the frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves. Among the 15 genotypes, two showed low frequency (Kahatat, Debbiya), nine showed medium (Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia safra, Heitia, Heitia soda, Cham 5, Noorsi, Horani 27, Numra 8) and four genotypes (Soori, Kahla, 43 Nabeljamal, and Anbar) showed high frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves. This variation could be attributed to the effect of the variety itself and less affected by environment (Haljak et al. 2008).This characteristic with some other morphological traits was used by El- Kalla, et al. (2010) for the determination of genetic purity in three common wheat varieties. 4.1.1.4 Glaucosity of lower side of flag leaf blade (GF) The 15 studied genotypes didn't vary in glaucosity of lower side of flag leaf blade. All of them had a medium layer of glaucosity (Table 4.1). This result indicates that the genes responsible for this trait are closely associated in the studied varieties. The locus controlling this trait, corresponding to a single dominant gene, was mapped on the telomeric region of short arm of chromosome 2B (Banio, 2012) and this trait was utilized as a high heritability and easy to measure character in cereals for selection to drought resistance (Ribot et al. 2012). 4.1.1.5 Glaucosity of spike's neck (GN) The wheat genotypes in this study showed different patterns on basis of glaucosity on the neck of spike. Two of them had weak glaucosity (Heitia, Heitia soda), One genotype had a strong glaucosity (Cham 5), while the other 12 were medium (Table 4.1). The majority of studied genotypes (12 of 15) showed medium glaucosity on spikes neck, this may be due to the genetic association among these genotypes in terms of this trait. El- Kalla, et al., (2010) used this character 44 to distinguish between three cultivars of bread wheat showing variations in this trait. Similar results were obtained by Haljak et al., (2008) in assessing the variation in winter wheat varieties showing variations from medium to strong glaucosity. 4.1.1.6 Peduncle attitude (PA) Peduncle attitude varied among the 15 studied genotypes (Table 4.1). Only Horani 27 was straight, ten were medium (Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia soda, Heitia, Noorsi, Kahla, Nabeljamal, Numra 8, Cham 5 and Anbar), and four were crooked (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Debbiya and Soori). The results revealed that, the studied genotypes varied in three groups (straight, medium and crooked) peduncle. Mansing (2010) reported the presence of similar variation between 22 different varieties of wheat. 4.1.1.7 Straw pith in cross (SPC) Based on straw pith in cross trait, the genotypes were separated into two categories (Table 4.1); six of them showed thick pith (Heitia soda, Noorsi, Kahla, Nabeljamal, Horani 27, Numra 8) while the remaining nine genotypes had medium pith (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2. Heitia, Debbiya, Soori, Cham 5, Anbar). This trait is a genetic and highly heritable trait in wheat that is frequently used in breeding programs (Van Den Berg, 2008). It was reported that, there is a significant positive correlation between straw thickness of wheat and lodging resistance in bread wheat varieties (Karim and Jahan, 2013). 45 4.1.1.8 Plant growth habit (GH) Genotypes in this study were separated into two categories; nine of them were erect (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Debbiya, Noorsi, Kahla and Anbar) and six genotypes were semi erect (Heitia soda, Debbiya, Soori, Numra 8 and Cham 5) (Table 4.1). All studied genotypes appeared as erect or semi erect but none of them were near to prostrate habit. This is a favorable trait for the selection of high production and low grain and straw loss. Ruiz and Martin (2000) studied growth habit among Spanish landraces of durum wheat and showed that 93 % of studied genotypes appeared as erect or intermediate. 46 Table 4.1. Identification wheat genotypes based on Coleoptile Anthocyanin Coloration (CAC), Flag leaf Anthocyanin Coloration of Auricles (FACA), and Frequency of plants with recurved flag leaves (FPRF), Glaucosity of lower side of flag leaf blade (GF), Glaucosity of spike's neck (GN) Peduncle attitude (PA), Straw pith in cross (SPC) and Plant growth habit (GH). Trait Genotype CAC FACA FPRF GF GN PA SPC GH Kahatat Absent or very week Weak Low Medium Medium Crooked Medium Erect Heitia safra Week Weak Medium Medium Medium Crooked Medium Erect Heitia beda 1 Week Medium Medium Medium Medium Bent Medium Erect Heitia beda 2 Week Weak Medium Medium Medium Bent Medium Erect Heitia soda Week Medium Medium Medium Weak Bent Thick Semi erect Heitia Week Weak Medium Medium Weak Bent Medium Semi erect Debbiya Absent or very week Weak Low Medium Medium Crooked Medium Erect Soori Medium Weak High Medium Medium Crooked Medium Semi erect Noorsi Week Weak Medium Medium Medium Bent Thick Erect Kahla Week Weak High Medium Medium Bent Thick Erect Nabeljamal Medium Weak High Medium Medium Bent Thick Semi erect Horani 27 Week Weak Medium Medium Medium Straight Thick Erect Numra 8 Strong Weak Medium Medium Medium Bent Thick Semi erect Cham 5 Week Medium High Medium Strong Bent Medium Semi erect Anbar Strong Weak High Medium Medium Bent Medium Erect 47 4.1.2 Spike Characteristics: 4.1.2.1 Spike glaucosity (SG) According to spike glaucosity, the results of this study showed that one genotype (Cham 5) had strong spike glaucosity characteristic while the remaining fourteen genotypes were found medium (Table 4.2). All genotypes under investigation showed medium spike glaucosity except cham 5 which had strong glaucosity. The appearance of this trait is attributed to genetic structure with single gene (Banio, 2012) and is associated with drought resistance (Ribot et al., 2012), accordingly it is documented that, Cham 5 is recommended to be cultivated in semi dry zones (ICARDA, 1995). 4.1.2.2 Spike shape (SS) Spike shape varied among the studied 15 genotypes (Table 4.2). Ten of them had the tapering shape (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 2, Heitia soda, Noorsi, Nabeljamal, Horani 27, Numra 8, Cham 5 and Anbar) and five were parallel sided in shape (Heitia beda 1, Heitia, Debbiya, Soori and Kahla). This trait was used by Al- khanjari et al (2008) in characterizing the Omani wheat landraces reporting that this trait was very polymorphic characteristic. In another investigation on Bulgarian wheat landraces all genotypes were grouped into pyramidical or cylindrical shapes (Deshava, 2014). 48 4.1.2.3 Spike density (SD) Table 4.2 shows that the 15 genotypes were segregated in terms of spike density. Four of them have very dense spike (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Debbiya and Noorsi), eight genotypes have dense spike (Heitia Beda 1, Heitia, Soori, Kahla, Horani 27, Numra 8, Cham 5 and Anbar) and three genotypes (Heitia Beda 2, Heitia soda and Nabeljamal) have medium spike density. The large variation between the studied genotypes in terms of spike density reflects the genetic variation. In particular, landraces varied from very dense spike, dense to medium. This trait in tetraploid wheat is controlled by two genes in recessive state (Goncharov et al, 2002). It was documented that, the wild relatives of wheat beard the variation in spike density as Einkorn (T. monococum. L.) and Emmer (T. dicocum SCHUEBL) had short and dense spikes, while Spelta (T. spelta L.) had long and lax spikes (Konvalina et al. 2010). Similar results were recorded by Ruiz and Martin (2000) showed a wider variation between Spanish wheat landraces ranged high dense to lax spikes. 4.1.2.4 Spike color (SC) Spike color varied among the studied genotypes (Table 4.2). Four showed white color (Heitia beda1, Heitia beda2, Numra 8 and Cham 5), eight had slight color (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia, Debbiya, Soori, Noorsi, Kahla and Horani 27), two were strongly colored (Nabeljamal and Anbar) and one genotype showed black color (Heitia soda). 49 The spike color in studies genotypes ranged widely from white through slightly and strongly colored to black spikes. The traditional naming of some of the local varieties depended primarily on spike color (Heitia beda means white heitia, Heitia safra means yellow heitia, and finally Heitia soda means black heitia). This wide range of spike color reflects the wide variability of wheat landraces in Palestine as a part the origin of wheat. Similar results were reported concerning Spanish wheat land races that varied widely in spike color from white to purple- grey to black (Ruiz and Martin, 2000). 4.1.2.5 Awns color (AC) Awns color varied widely among the studied 15 genotypes (Table 4.2). Four genotypes were white (Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Numra 8 and Cham 5), six were light brown (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia, Debbiya, Soori and Horani 27), two were medium purple (Nabeljamal and Anbar) and three genotypes were deep purple (Heitia soda, Noorsi and Kahla). The wide variation of awns color among studied genotypes reflects the variation in genetic structure among these genotypes. Data regarding Spanish wheat landraces reported the variation of awns color from white to red brown (Ruiz and Martin, 2000), while Omani landraces represent dominant black awns color (Al- khanjari et al., 2008). 4.1.2.6 Awns attitude (AA) Table 4.2 displays the variation of awns attitude among the studied genotypes. Oppressed type of awns was observed in four genotypes (Soori, 50 Noorsi, Kahla and Cham 5), eight seemed medium (Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia, Nabeljamal, Horani 27, Numra 8 and Anbar) while three genotypes had spreading awns (Kahatat, Heitia soda and Debbiya). In another study on Omani landraces, the majorly of landraces appeared as oppressed awns attitude (Al- khanjari et al. 2008), this comparison reveals the wider variability of Palestinian wheat landraces as compared to Omani landraces in base of awns attitude. 4.1.2.7 Awns roughness (AR) The genotypes under study varied in terms of awns roughness (Table 4.2). Five of them were found smooth (Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Horani 27, Numra 8 and Cham 5), six genotypes were medium (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia, Debbiya, Soori and Anbar) and four had rough awns (Heitia soda, Noors,i Kahla and Nabeljamal). The genetic variability in studied genotypes affected awns roughness. The Spanish landraces studied by Ruiz and Martin (2000) showed that 98.9 % of the collections had rough awns, smooth awns which is considered as favorable trait for stockholders while rough awns had the advantage in terms of the protection of grains against bird damage (Al- khanjari et al. 2008). 4.1.2.8 Awns or scurs presence (ASP) No variation was observed among the studied genotypes in terms of ASP in which all the 15 showed awns presence (Table 4.2). 51 This trait is well noticed mainly in tetraploid durum wheat more than in hexaploid bread wheat genotypes (Watkins and Elerton, 1940). Moreover, the presence of awns can double the photosynthesis rates especially under drier conditions then enhance drought resistance (Sourdille, 2002), which is considered as an important agronomic advantage in durum wheat varieties. 52 Table 4.2: Identification of wheat genotypes based on Spike glaucosity (SG), Spike shape (SS), Spike density (SD), and Spike color (SC) Awns color (AC), Awns attitude (AA), Awns roughness (AR) and Awns or scurs presence (ASP). Trait Genotype SG SS SD SC AC AA AR ASP Kahatat Medium Tapering Very dense Slightly colored Light brown Spreading Medium Awns presence Heitia safra Medium Tapering Very dense Slightly colored Light brown Medium Medium Awns presence Heitia beda 1 Medium Parallel sided Dense White White Medium Smooth Awns presence Heitia beda 2 Medium Tapering Medium White White Medium Smooth Awns presence Heitia soda Medium Tapering Medium Black Deep purple Spreading Rough Awns presence Heitia Medium Parallel sided Dense Slightly colored Light brown Medium Medium Awns presence Debbiya Medium Parallel sided Very dense Slightly colored Light brown Spreading Medium Awns presence Soori Medium Parallel sided Dense Slightly colored Light brown Oppressed Medium Awns presence Noorsi Medium Tapering Very dense Slightly colored Deep purple Oppressed Rough Awns presence Kahla Medium Parallel sided Dense Slightly colored Deep purple Oppressed Rough Awns presence Nabeljamal Medium Tapering Medium Strongly colored Medium purple Medium Rough Awns presence Horani 27 Medium Tapering Dense Slightly colored Light brown Medium Smooth Awns presence Numra 8 Medium Tapering Dense White White Medium Smooth Awns presence Cham 5 Strong Tapering Dense White White Oppressed Smooth Awns presence Anbar Medium Tapering Dense Strongly colored Medium purple Spreading Medium Awns presence 53 4.1.2.9 Lower glume shape (GS) The 15 studied genotypes varied according to lower glume shape (Table 4. 3). The majority of genotypes were medium oblong (Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia soda, Heitia, Soori, Noorsi, Kahla, Horani 27, Cham 5 and Anbar). Three were ovoid (Kahatat, Heitia safra and Debbiya). Only Nabeljamal and Numra 8 were narrow oblong in lower glume shape. As glume of studied genotypes had three shapes, most were medium oblonged. In a previous study concerning Omani landraces, most genotypes had oblong glume shape (Al- khanjari et al., 2008). Similar results were reported concerning Spanish collections (Ruiz and Aguiriano, 2004). 4.1.2.10 Lower glume external hairiness (GEH) A high level of variation among the studied genotypes according to lower glume external hairiness was observed (Table 4.3). Nine genotypes were absent hairiness (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia, Debbiya, Noorsi, Horani 27 and Numra 8), weakness observed with four genotypes (Heitia soda, Soori, Kahla and Cham 5), medium in Anbar, and strong in Nabeljamal genotypes. This wide variation reflects the broad genetic base of this trait, although most of genotypes had smooth and weak glume hairs Nabeljamal was distinctive in presence of long and extensive hairs. The results agreed with Al- Khanjari et al. (2008) which indicated polymorphism in glume hairiness in Omani wheat landraces. Similar results were reported by Ruis and Martin (2000) concerning Spanish landraces collection in which there was a variation in glume hairs in spite of 70 % had absent glume hairs. 54 4.1.2.11 Lower glume shoulder width (GSW) There were two types of lower glume shoulder width among the fifteen genotypes in this study (Table 4.3). All evaluated genotypes showed narrow except for Heitia beda 1 and Heitia soda that showed medium lower glume shoulder width. Similar results were observed in the description of wheat landraces from Spain by Ruiz and Aguiriano (2004) who showed that most of studied landraces had narrow glume shoulder width. 4.1.2.12 Lower glume shoulder shape (GSS) The 15 genotypes in this investigation varied in terms of lower glume shoulder shape (Table 4.3). Seven of them showed rounded (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia beda 2, Heitia soda, Heitia, Debbiya and Noorsi), four showed elevated (Heitia beda 1, Nabeljamal, Numra 8 and Anbar) and four genotypes had straight glume shoulder shape (Soori, Kahla, Horani 27 and Cham 5). Ruiz and Aguiriano (2004) demonstrated that Spanish landraces varied in glume shoulder shape with clear rise in landraces with elevated shoulders. 4.1.2.13 Lower glume peak length (GPL) The studied wheat genotypes differed in base of lower glume peak length (Table 4.3). Peak was found very short in three of them (Kahatat, Heitia, safra and Debbiya), short in five (Heitia beda 2, Heitia, Horani 27, Cham 5 and Anbar), medium in other five (Heitia beda 1, Heitia soda, Soori, Noorsi and Kahla) and long in two genotypes (Nabeljamal and Numra 8). 55 Similar variation was observed in a study demonstrating morphological traits of some wheat varieties in Bangladesh (Tasnuva et al., 2010) in which a significant variation (range 1.2- 10 mm) in peak length was recorded. Table 4.3. Identification of wheat genotypes based on Lower glume shape (GS), Lower glume external hairiness(GEH), Lower glume shoulder width (GSW), Lower glume shoulder shape (GSS) and Lower glume peak length (GPL). Trait Genotype GS GEH GSW GSS GPL Kahatat Ovoid Absent Narrow Rounded Very short Heitia safra Ovoid Absent Narrow Rounded Very short Heitia beda 1 Medium oblong Absent Medium Elevated Medium Heitia beda 2 Medium oblong Absent Narrow Rounded Short Heitia soda Medium oblong Weak Medium Rounded Medium Heitia Medium oblong Absent Narrow Rounded Short Debbiya Ovoid Absent Narrow Rounded Very short Soori Medium oblong Weak Narrow Straight Medium Noorsi Medium oblong Absent Narrow Rounded Medium Kahla Medium oblong Weak Narrow Straight Medium Nabeljamal Narrow oblong Strong Narrow Elevated Long Horani 27 Medium oblong Absent Narrow Straight Short Numra 8 Narrow oblong Absent Narrow Elevated Long Cham 5 Medium oblong Weak Narrow Straight Short Anbar Medium oblong Medium Narrow Elevated Short 4.1.2.14 Lower glume peak curvate (GPC) Table 4.4 shows that 14 out of the 15 studied genotypes had weak lower glume peak curvate, while only Nabeljamal had moderate curvate. 56 Similar results were reported by Ruiz and Aguiriano (2004) concerning Spanish wheat landraces, as 87 % of the studied genotypes had weak or no curved peaks and the remained had medium peaks. Table 4.4. Identification of wheat genotypes based on Lower glume peak shape (GPS), Lower glume peak curvate (GPC), Grain color (GC) and Grain shape (GS) Trait Genotype GPC GC GS Kahatat Weak Reddish Slightly elongated Heitia safra Weak Reddish Moderately elongated Heitia beda 1 Weak Whitish Moderately elongated Heitia beda 2 Weak Whitish Moderately elongated Heitia soda Weak Dark Strongly elongated Heitia Weak Reddish Moderately elongated Debbiya Weak Reddish Slightly elongated Soori Weak Whitish Moderately elongated Noorsi Weak Dark Strongly elongated Kahla Weak Dark Strongly elongated Nabeljamal Moderately curved Reddish Extremely elongated Horani 27 Weak Reddish Slightly elongated Numra 8 Weak Whitish Strongly elongated Cham 5 Weak Whitish Strongly elongated Anbar Weak Reddish Strongly elongated 4.1.3 Grain characteristics 4.1.3.1 Grain color (GC) The 15 genotypes in our study were grouped in terms of grain color (Table 4.4). Five of them were whitish (Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Soori, Numra 8 and Cham 5), seven were reddish (Kahatat, Heitia safra, Heitia, Debbiya, 57 Nabeljamal, Horani 27 and Anbar) and three had dark color (Heitia soda, Noorsi and Kahla). This wide variation in our study agreed with a study conducted using Omani landraces in which red grain color was dominant (Al- khanjari et al. 2008). In contract to a study conducted on wheat landraces in Spain, the dominant grain color was white over red. 4.1.3.2 Grain shape (GS) Grain shape varied strongly among the studied genotypes as shown in Table 4.4 Three were slightly elongated (Kahatat, Debbiya and Horani 27), five were moderately elongated (Heitia safra, Heitia beda 1, Heitia beda 2, Heitia and Soori), six were strongly elongated (Heitia soda, Noorsi, Kahla, Numra 8, Cham 5 and Anbar) and one genotype (Nabeljamal) was extremely elongated. Grain shape is one of the most important parameters used in classification, identification and study of variation in wheat varieties (Mebatsion et al. 2012).The was a wide variation according to grain shape among studied genotypes reflects broad genetic variability among the Palestinian wheat landraces which could be easily distinguished by grain shape. Similar results were obtained in a study on phenotypic classification of some Palestinian wheat landraces in which genotypes were classified into rounded, oval and elongated (Sawalha, et al. 2008). 4.2. Agronomic Traits Evaluation (Field growth performance) The goal of this part of study is to evaluate agronomic and yield performance for different landraces of durum wheat in Palestine. The 58 studied traits covered the vegetative field growth performance, time needed for heading and maturity, reaction to rust and lodging, yield components and capacity for grain and straw production, etc. these traits were studied at five locations representing different environmental conditions in Palestine, study was conducted through two growth seasons. In total sixteen traits were evaluated. 4.2.1 Number of fertile tillers per plant (NT) Number of fertile tillers per plant varied significantly among the studied genotypes (Table 4.7) with an average of 3.79 tillers. The genotype Heitia soda had the highest mean fertile tillers (4.44 tillers) while Soori had the lowest mean number (3.46 tillers). This variation could be attributed to genetic factors that genotypes did or not have the tillering inhibitor gene (tin), in addition to environmental and agronomic factors as sowing density, nitrogen fertilization and drought stress (Ribot et al., 2012). Location affected number of fertile tillers per plant which varied from 4.242 tillers (in mean at Tubas site) to 2.868 tillers at Za'tara site (Table 4.6). The decrease in fertile tillers per plant at Za'tara site may be due to drought stress that decrease tillering (Ribot et al., 2012), as this site receive low rainfall. Similar results were shown by Salimia and Atawnah (2014) in a study of wheat genotypes in three sites in south Palestine namely the site of Janata with low annual rainfall had the fewest fertile tillers comparative with Arrub and Dora sites that have higher rainfall. 59 4.2.2 Plant height (PTHT) Plant height varied significantly among the 15 genotypes (Table 4.7). The average was 98.53 cm. The genotype Nabeljamal showed the highest mean height (121.31cm) while Soori had the lowest (82.80 cm) height. This high variation could be attributed to genetic differences between genotypes as this plant height is a quantitative trait controlled by many genes (Yao, et al., 2011). Landraces showed higher mean plant height (102.27) cm compared with (84.49) cm in mean for the introduced varieties (Anbar, Cham 5 and Numra 8) with an increase of 21% (Table 4.22). Similar results were reported in studying phenotypic variability of durum wheat from Jordan in which most landraces had plant average height higher than the improved varieties (Rawashdeh, et al., 2007). Plant height was affected by experimental location as highest mean was recorded in Tulkarm (108.37 cm) while Za'tara site with mean of (82.87 cm) was the lowest (Table 4.6). As being a quantitative trait, Environmental conditions especially water availability and soil fertility affects plant height, this fact can clarify our results demonstrating the tallest plants of the same genotype were in Tulkarm site (Highest rainfall) while shortest were in Za'tara (lowest rainfall). Similar results were cleared by Salimia and Atawnah (2014) revealing that plant height was positively correlated with the site average rainfall. 4.2.3 Spike length (SL) The 15 genotypes of wheat showed significant variation based on spike length (Table 4.8). The average was (70.37 mm). Nabeljamal genotype had 60 the most spike length (100.10 mm) while Kahatat had the fewest spike length (49.07 mm).This result reflects the broad genetic structure of these varieties. Similar results on a study of phenotypic classification of local and improved wheat varieties in Palestine indicated a wide variation from 40 mm in Kahatat to 70 mm in Nabeljamal for spike length (Sawalha, et al. 2008). Landraces showed shorter spikes (70) mm in compared with (76.7) mm in mean for the introduced varieties (Anbar, Cham 5 and Numra 8) (Table 4.22) with a decrease of 9%%, while three landraces (Noorsi, Kahla and Nabeljamal) were longer spikes with (87.37) mm in mean and (14%) over introduced varieties. Spike length was affected by the experimental location which varied from 74.99 mm) at Tubas to 59.46 mm in Za'tara (Table 4.6). Spike length was the lowest at Za'tara, this may be due to drought stress as annual rainfall is the lowest. This result was supported by the results of Salimia and Atawnah (2014) in which spike length was the lowest at Janata (lowest rainfall) than Arrub and Dura (higher rainfall) for most of studied varieties. 4.2.4 Awns length (AL) Awns length varied significantly among the 15 genotypes (Table 4.8) with (107.10) mm as average. Nabeljamal genotype had the tallest awns (135.00 mm) while Kahatat had the shortest (81.67 mm). This variation was closely related to spike length. In a study done by Nawaz et al (2013) using wheat landraces Pakistan, there was a high significant variation among twenty five genotypes based on awns length. 61 Landraces had shorter awns with a mean of (105.33) mm in compared with (113.78) mm in mean for the introduced varieties (Anbar, Cham 5 and Numra 8) with a decrease of 7.5%%, while three landraces (Noorsi, Kahla and Nabeljamal) had longer spikes with (125.78) mm in mean and (10.5%) increase over introduced varieties(Table 4.22). It is clear that there was a strong association between awns length and spike l