An-Najah National University 

Faculty of Graduate Studies 

 

 

The Effect of Applying the Test-Teach-Test Approach 

in Improving the Students’ English Language Writing 

Skill in East Jerusalem Schools 

 

 

By 

Sahar Najeh Abdel Aziz Shweiki 

 

Supervisor 

Dr. Suzanne Arafat 

Co-Supervisor 

Dr. Ayman Nazzal 

 

 
 

This Thesis was Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 

of the Degree of Master in Methods of Teaching English Language, 

Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University,      

Nablus-Palestine.  

 2018





III 

Dedication 

I dedicate my work to my family; I will never stop showing gratitude to my 

beloved husband Alaa who overwhelmed me with love, courage, and 

devoted most of his time to make this experience free of stress.  

I also thank my children and appreciate their support and patience all my 

studying time. 

I will never forget to thank my loving parents, sisters and brother who 

afforded real support for me and for my children. 



IV 

Acknowledgement 

 I would like to express gratitude to the mighty Allah for giving me the 

patience and perseverance to accomplish my study. I would also like to 

extend my sincere appreciation to my supervisors Dr. Suzanne Arafat and 

Dr. Ayman Nazzal for their time, support and recommendations. Many 

thanks are to the internal examiner Dr. Ahmed Raba’ and external 

examiner Dr. Mosaddaq Barahmeh whose comments will enrich my thesis.  

I would like to thank all my colleagues specially Tawfiq Khwaireh who 

lent me a hand to accomplish this study.  

Special thanks for Dr. Ahmed Raba’ who advised me to dig into this 

particular approach and suggested essential ideas to enrich my thesis. 

Finally, I would like to thank the school principals, teachers and students 

for their assistance in helping me to complete this research successfully.  

 



V 

 رقراراال

 أنا الموقعة ادناه مقدمة الرسالة التي تحمل العنوان:

The Effect of Applying the Test-Teach-Test Approach in Improving 

the Students’ English Language Writing Skill in East               

Jerusalem Schools  

ج جيدي الخاص، باستثناء ما تمت اإلشارة إليو عميو ىذه الرسالة إنما ىي نتاأقر بأن ما اشتممت 
ن ىذه الرسالة ككل، أو أي جزء منيا لم يقدم من قبل لنيل أية درجة عممية أو بحث أحيثما ورد، و 

 عممي أو بحثي لدى أية مؤسسة تعميمية أو بحثية أخرى.

 

Declaration 

The work provided in this thesis, unless otherwise referenced, is the 

researcher`s own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other 

degree or qualification. 

 

Student`s Name :اسم الطالب 

Signature التورقيع 

Date التاريخ 



VI 

Table of Contents  

No.  Content  Page  

  Dedication  III 

  Acknowledgement  IV 

  Declaration  V 

  List of Tables  VIII 

 Abstract  IX 

  Chapter One: Introduction and Theoretical 

Background 

1 

1.1 Introduction  2 

1.2 Theoretical Background 6 

1.3 Statement of the Problem 9 

1.4 The Purpose of the Study 10 

1.5 Questions of the Study 10 

1.6 Significance of the Study 11 

1.7 Hypotheses of the Study 12 

1.8 Limitations of the Study 13 

1.9 Definition of the Terms 14 

1.10 Summary  16 

 Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature 18 

2.1 Introduction 19 

2.2 Studies Related to Writing 19 

2.3 Studies Related to the Importance of Writing 22 

2.4 Studies on the Inadequate Writing Skills and Abilities 23 

2.5 Studies Related to Methods Used to Improving Writing 25 

2.6 The Test-Teach-Test Approach 27 

2.6.1 Introduction 27 

2.6.2 Diagnosing Errors 28 

2.6.3 Analyzing Errors 33 

2.6.4 The Contrastive Analysis 34 

2.6.5 The Error Analysis 37 

2.6.6 Intervention: Teaching Phase 39 

2.6.7 Examining Achievement 45 

2.6.8 Studies That Relate to the Test-Teach-Test Approach 50 

2.7 Summary 53 

  Chapter Three: Methodology and Procedures 54 

3.1  Introduction 55 

3.2  Methodology  55 

3.3  Variables of the Study 57 

3.4  Limitations of the Study 57 



VII 

3.5  Instrument Validity and Reliability  57 

3.6  Data Analysis  58 

3.7  Ethical Considerations 61 

3.8  Originality and Limitations of Methodology 61 

3.9  Pilot Study  62 

3.10 The Study Approach 63 

3.11  Summary 69 

  Chapter Four: Results of the Study 70 

 Introduction  71 

4.1  Results of the Tests Analysis  71 

4.2  Presentation of The Interview Results 82 

4.3  Summary 95 

  
Chapter Five: Discussion of the Results, Conclusion 

and Recommendations 
96 

5.1  Introduction  97 

5.2  Discussion of the Results of the Study  97 

5.3  Conclusion  108 

5.4  Recommendations 109 

5.4.1 Recommendations for Students  109 

5.4.2 Recommendations for Teachers  110 

5.4.3 Recommendations for Further Research  111 

5.4.4 Recommendations for the Ministry of Education  111 

5.5 Summary  112 

  References  113 

  Appendices  132 

  ب الملخص   



VIII 

List of Tables 

No Table Page 

Table (4.1) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the pretest  for the content organization 

72 

Table (4.2) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the posttest for the content organization 

72 

Table (4.3) ANCOVA results 73 

Table (4.4) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the pretest  for the appropriate vocabulary 

74 

Table (4.5) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the posttest for the appropriate vocabulary 

74 

Table (4.6) ANCOVA results 75 

Table (4.7): 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the pretest  for the language use errors of word 

order,  pronouns, prepositions 

76 

Table (4.8) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the posttest for the language use errors of word 

order,  pronouns, prepositions 

76 

Table (4.9) ANCOVA results 77 

Table (4.10) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the pretest  for Mechanics errors of spelling, 

punctuation, capitalization 

78 

Table (4.11) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the posttest for the mechanics errors of 

spelling, punctuation, capitalization 

78 

Table (4.12) ANCOVA results 79 

Table (4.13) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the pretest  writing exam 

80 

Table (4.14) 

Means and standard deviation based on the 

group (experiment group vs. control group) in 

the posttest for the writing exam 

80 

Table (4.15) ANCOVA results 81 

 



IX 

The Effect of Applying the Test-Teach-Test Approach in Improving 

the Students’ English Language Writing Skill in East               

Jerusalem Schools 

By 

Sahar Najeh Abdel Aziz Shweiki 

Supervisor 

Dr. Suzanne Arafat 

Co-Supervisor 

Dr. Ayman Nazzal 

Abstract 

This study aimed at investigating the effect of applying the test-teach-test 

approach in improving the students’ English language writing skill in East 

Jerusalem schools”. To achieve this aim, the researcher utilized both 

interviews with ten female and male teachers to investigate their attitude 

towards using the test- teach-test approach and to what extent they utilize it 

to improve writing skills, and a quasi-experimental study applied on 58 

students in the ninth grade from Shu’fat Basic School for girls in East 

Jerusalem. 29 of the students constituted the experimental group that 

applied the pre-test as well as the following instructions according to the 

test-teach-test approach. On the other hand, the second group was the 

control group that applied the pre-test but continued to learn with the 

traditional way, then they applied the post-test.  

The results of the quasi-experimental study showed positive effect of 

utilizing this approach on all of writing domains except the use of 

vocabulary domain. Moreover, the results of the interviews also showed 

positive tendency toward applying it.  In the light of these results, the 

researcher recommended teachers to utilize the test-teach-test approach in 

teaching writing in all levels of learning taking advantage of the available 



X 

facilities. The researcher also proposed some recommendation to students, 

researchers, and the Ministry of Education according to the results of the 

current study. For example, students should not feel shy to ask for help 

from more competent peers or any elder person. Moreover, she advised 

researchers to replicate this study using other instruments and limitations.  



1 

Chapter One 

Introduction and Theoretical Background 

  

 Introduction 

 Theoretical Background 

 Statement of the problem 

 The Purpose of the Study 

 Questions of the Study 

 Significance of the Study 

 Hypothesis of the Study 

 Limitations of the Study 

 Definition of the Terms 

 Summary 

 

 

 

 

 

 



2 

1.1. Introduction  

Human have a duty in this glamorous world, they have to think, dig 

and discover knowledge around them to make their life easier and to realize 

specific dreams and expectations. Learning is certainly the most important 

way to changing the human life, and hopefully to a better one. In this study, 

the researcher tried to prove how can current approaches in general and the 

test-teach-test in particular help in enhancing learning and acquiring better 

writing skill. 

Keshta (2000) overemphasized the importance of English language as 

the most dominant lingua franca all over the world in all walks of life in the 

age of globalization. Hundreds of millions use the English language; it 

became the most frequently used, and the most prestigious spoken 

language. About one billion students are learning English worldwide. In 

addition, it is the language of science, technology, education, economy, and 

policy. Nowadays, the English language pervades all over the world, 

especially as a result of the international information development. 

Consequently, state politicians, curriculum designers, and educators in 

most countries work on integrating teaching English in their schools. 

According to this fact, the governments in the Arab countries, and 

especially in Palestine, collaborated in an intensified manner to modify 

their curricula. They began to teach the English language to students from 

the first grade in all national and private schools to develop the students in 

this particular language that became one of the major educational subjects 



3 

in Palestinian schools to give the students better opportunities to 

communicate through this global language when they need to in the future 

(Mutawa, 1997). 

Sorour (2009) pointed out that a teacher should be highly proficient in 

supporting his/her students in acquiring an adequate and sufficient speaking 

and writing skills to communicate better in English and to  transfer them 

from powerlessness to supremacy level. Ramet (2007) emphasized writing 

as one of the four skills that needed more attention in the Palestinian 

schools, but unfortunately, Burns (2001) demonstrated that teachers 

demeaned the importance of this skill for teaching another domain of 

language such as grammar. 

Writing is an essential skill; it should be given much more attention 

from teachers who indeed ignore and under evaluate this crucial productive 

skill. Harb (2013) censured the teachers’ marginalization of writing skill. 

Moreover, he advised them to utilize various effective methodologies to 

help the student to develop his/her ability in exhibiting ideas skillfully via 

adequate writing. 

History provided us with clear evidence about the importance and 

enormous value of writing for humankind. Spar (2004) stated that when 

humans realized the importance of writing thousands of year ago, they 

transcribed the spoken language to keep knowledge and from evanescence.  

Jackson (1981) explained the reasons why Sumerians had invented the 

cuneiform writing system since the 3rd millennium before Christ (BC). 



4 

They depicted on clay to record their sales and harvest, as well as to 

communicate with other long distance cities in war and peace. Then, the 

Pharaohs developed the hieroglyphic system that used pictogram writing on 

papyrus to tell religious instructions, record taxes, and study science.  

As a continuation of the process of developing writing, the 

Phoenicians expanded writing by the invention of the alphabetical 

phonogram, which helped to specify each written symbol to its particular 

sound and enlarging  learning at that time. Later on, the purpose of writing 

was twisted to express the individual experiences, emotions, and stories. 

 Arabs, in the early Islamic era, considered writing as a very vital skill to be 

taken care of. Thus, they built schools and opened mosques to teach people 

of all ages to write and read the Arabic language and foreign languages for 

free. 

The monotheistic religions stressed the importance of writing. In 

(  bd-al-B q   1999)  the root  k t b     write” is mentioned more than 

three hundred times in the Holy Quran, as in Al-(Baqarah  282)  O you 

who have believed, when you contract a debt for a specified term, write it 

down. And let a scribe write [it] between you injustice. Let no scribe refuse 

to write as Allah has taught." The Bible also emphasized writing more than 

three hundred and fifty times as in (Exodus 34: 27)   nd the Lord said to 

Moses: Write for yourself these words because I have these words have 

made a covenant with you and with Israel.” Moreover  writing is regarded 



5 

as the most beneficial tool that protected holy books from vanishing     

(Ibeid, 2012). 

As for the educational sector, Isleem (2012) noted that writing skill 

became more crucial because the student can express his/her intellectual 

ability, background and also his/her emotional state in a visible manner. 

Moreover, Richards and Renandya (2002) claimed that writing skill is a 

composite of high-level skills such as planning and low-level skills such as 

spelling. Yet, they mentioned that writing enables the teacher to evaluate 

the student’s level relying on tangible evidence. Scarcella and Oxford 

(1992) contended that individual differences affect pupils' writing. Hence, a 

teacher has to mediate instructions to address these needs and objectives 

through playing various roles such as assisting, offering resources, 

providing feedback, and examining. 

The test- teach - test approach stemmed basically from dynamic 

assessment that tried to flourish and improve the effectiveness of learning 

based on Vygotsky’s theory (1978) of the Zone of Proximal Development 

(ZPD)  which stated that teachers should identify the specific needs and 

weaknesses of their students  through diagnostic tests since the students’ 

needs dictate the syllabus; the teacher exposes his students to an initial 

diagnostic test which in turns provides a precise data about the students’ 

points of inaccuracy.  

These data help the teacher to develop particular strategies about what 

to teach and how long to teach each subject depending on the specific 



6 

results of the test to improve the students’ skills. Finally  students conduct 

an achievement test at the end of the teaching process to confirm that they 

have mastered the specifically intended skills (Poehner, 2011). 

In conclusion, it sounds commonsensical to apply the previously 

mentioned approach which is considered entirely scientific. The researcher 

compared the teacher to a doctor who would try to uncover the exact reason 

behind illness through conducting specific diagnostic tests that determine 

the most appropriate treatment’s procedures to cure the patient’s particular 

sickness without wasting time on misleading predictions, and speculations 

that may lead either the doctor or his patient into frustration, therefore, 

consequences could be more serious. Furthermore, the patient has to 

conduct a follow-up test to make sure that these systematic treatments have 

already helped in healing that particular illness. 

1.2. Theoretical Background 

The test-teach-test approach relies on Piaget’s constructivist theory 

(1896- 0891) and Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist theory (1896 – 1934). 

 Martin (2009) believed that learners are eager to adopt new 

knowledge by relating it to previous experience. Putting in mind that  it is 

not necessary that learners understand identically what teacher explains, so 

each student builds up his/her perception, attitude, and understanding and 

exhibits them through productive skills, such as speaking, writing, and 

communicating. Martin also added that a teacher has to help his/her 

students in adapting their well-organized, indispensable and sufficient 



7 

knowledge to knit a coherent and comprehensive awareness. Thus, the 

teacher may establish a unique, skillful way of an investigation by asking 

questions or introducing students to some new innovative tasks that reveal 

their actual abilities and, of course, their impairments. Hence, they can 

formulate a strong foundation and a profound ground to strengthen their 

areas of weakness. Thus, students become more aware of their weakness 

and tend to adapt the existing concepts to more proper ones with the 

guidance of their teacher.  

This idea harmonizes with Ausubel (1978) who believed that teachers 

should take into consideration the current knowledge that a student has 

while constructing activities to exhibit the intended new knowledge and 

that  The single most important factor influencing learning is what the 

learner already knows.”  Penner (2001  p.3). Penner (2001) also stated that 

teaching franchises become learning franchises if the teachers rely on the 

needs of their students. Moreover, nowadays student-centered learning 

pervades educational institutions because educators believe that learning 

turns out to be more productive when it meets the different types of 

learners. Constructivists see students as active participants and architects 

who construct their knowledge under the guidance of their teachers who 

should be aware that students may not learn what they are expected to 

learn.  

Moreover, teachers take into consideration that learning does not 

occur only in class, but also outside the classroom through the interaction 



8 

between learners and their teacher, and also among peers within their 

environment. Teachers continue to facilitate learning until the students 

formulate an explicit, comprehensive picture of a particular awareness 

exhibited through adapting, criticizing, evaluating, reflecting, and 

synthesizing knowledge. Consequently, students become ambidextrous 

enough to solve problems that might face them anywhere and anytime. 

Barab & Duffy (2002) also added that constructivism refuses obsolete 

approaches that consider the students’ minds as a storehouse. In other 

words, constructivists believe that students are not supposed to memorize 

facts that can be quickly forgotten. On the contrary, constructivism seeks to 

benefit from any experience that students have for subsequent experiences 

by relating and applying what they have already known. Therefore, 

teachers have to choose the most beneficial approaches and strategies to 

support and facilitate the educational process for their students; teachers 

may add or omit components then redesign a comprehensive plan that 

stimulates the learner’ specific needs in order to motivate them to achieve 

the intended progress. 

Likewise, according to  Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, Miller, (2003) 

,Vygotsky, in his socio-constructivist theory,  developed his famous 

concept of Zone of Proximal Development that explained how educators 

can intervene and manipulate instruction to help  students develop their 

intellectual abilities in areas of learning, such as writing, reading, and also 

second-language acquisition (Dunn & Lantolf, 1998). All in all, one can 



9 

understand the primary condition of this concept which is the interaction 

between a sufficient person and less sufficient one to complete an 

applicable task. Thus, the idea of this concept lied in exposing the student 

to particular tasks until he/ she collides with tasks that are considered 

difficult for him/ her to complete independently. These tasks in turn 

become indicators for the teachers of the actual intellectual development of 

any student from which they can set their plans to make the most beneficial 

intervention for the sake of boosting the student’s capability to accomplish 

the task autonomously before beginning with a new another task (Gillen, 

2000, p. 193-194). 

As a result, it is rational to relate the test- teach - test approach to these 

theories for it basically stems from investigating the students’ abilities then 

planning instruction accordingly. The student’s level and student’s 

development are the core of the educational process. This is unlike the 

traditional trends that care more about exhibiting knowledge regardless of 

what students have really acquired. 

1.3. Statement of the Problem 

Based on all studies presented by the researcher, it is evident that 

students, at all levels, have difficulties in writing, these difficulties are 

obvious in all writing domains such as grammar, spelling, use of 

vocabulary, organization, and punctuation errors. Teachers, researchers, 

curriculum designers, students, and their parents assure this fact. They also 

noticed that even though students master grammar, punctuation, and 



10 

spelling, they still have their fears to express themselves, especially, in 

communicative writing tasks such as composing an essay or a letter. As a 

result, the researcher decided to apply the test- teach - test approach to 

answer the following question:  What is the effect of using the test- teach - 

test approach in enhancing the student’s writing skill in the English 

language?”  

1.4. The Purpose of the Study 

The study aimed to investigate the effect of applying the test- teach - 

test approach in enhancing the students’ English language writing skill. 

Furthermore, it aimed to identify the writing abilities of the 9
th
 grade 

students in East Jerusalem in the second semester of the school year 2016-

2017 and to determine if the test- teach - test has any effect on students’ 

writing skill. 

1.5. Questions of the Study 

To achieve the purpose of the study, the researcher addressed the 

following questions: 

1. What is the effect of applying the test- teach - test approach in 

improving the students’ English language writing skills? 

2. What are the writing errors committed by the students according to the 

diagnostic test?  



11 

3. What is the teachers’ attitude towards using the test- teach - test 

approach and to what extent they utilize it to improve the students` 

English language writing skills?   

4. Are there any differences between the test and the re-test due to scores 

and nature of errors? 

5. What is the most affected writing domain resulted from applying this 

approach? 

6. What is the least affected writing domain resulted from applying this 

approach? 

7. How do teachers grade their students’ writing proficiency? 

1.6. Hypotheses of the Study  

1. There is no significant relation at (α ≤ 0.05) in the group (experiment 

group vs. control group) in the posttest for the content organization 

attributed to using test-teach-test approach. 

2. There is no significant relation at (α ≤ 0.05) in the group (experiment 

group vs. control group) in the posttest for the appropriate vocabulary 

attributed to using test-teach-test approach. 

3. There is no significant relation at (α ≤ 0.05) in the group (experiment 

group vs. control group) in the posttest for the language use errors of 

word order, pronouns, and prepositions attributed to using test-teach-test 

approach. 



12 

4. There is no significant relation at (α ≤ 0.05) in the group (experiment 

group vs. control group) in the posttest for the Mechanics errors; 

spelling errors, punctuation, capitalization attributed to using test-teach-

test approach. 

5. There is no significant relation at (α ≤ 0.05) in the group (experiment 

group vs. control group) in the posttest for the writing exam attributed to 

using test-teach-test approach. 

1.7. Significance of the Study 

In the era of globalization, there is no doubt that teachers and 

curriculum designers should work together to convey the absolute 

beneficial knowledge and skills to students in a systematic way that takes 

into consideration the various levels of students’ needs and abilities. The 

haphazard syllabus may lead all curriculum stakeholders to many 

educational, and psychological disturbances; when the teacher teaches very 

complicated points for students, it is more likely to cause a feeling of 

frustration for both teachers and students. 

 On the other hand, if the teacher explains points in the syllabus that 

are considered very easy to students again and again only because these 

points are mentioned in the book, students are likely to be bored. Moreover, 

haphazard planning may consume the precious time of the class for nothing 

despite the fact that teachers complain from the short time, and consider it 

insufficient to cover the entire curriculum. 



13 

Therefore, the importance of this study stemmed from: 

1- The test- teach - test (TTT) approach is an optimal systematic, reliable 

methodology that cares about the needs of the students in the first place 

through diagnostic tests. 

2- The teacher and students feel more comfortable and safe when they 

know where to begin, what to teach, why to teach, and how long time 

should be devoted to each material. 

3- This methodology does not discover only the weak, but also the 

talented student. Each of them deserves a unique plan that suits his/her 

ability in order not to oppress any of them. 

4- It is reasonable to consider the test- teach - test approach as a reliable 

foundation that facilitates applying most of the other modern teaching 

styles; when the teacher becomes familiar with his students, he 

becomes able to decide the most suitable instructional strategies. 

Thus, it is reasonable to apply this approach, and hopefully, it will be 

helpful in enhancing students’ writing. 

1.8. Limitations of the Study 

The study had the following limitations: 

 Locative Limitations: one governmental school in East Jerusalem   

Shu’fat basic school for girls.” 



14 

 Temporal Limitations: This study was carried out during the second 

semester in the scholastic year 2016-2017. 

 Human Limitations: The study included (58) female students in the ninth 

grade. It also included (10) male and female teachers of English for the 

ninth grade. 

 Topical Limitations: To investigate the effect of applying the test- teach - 

test approach on improving the Students’ English language writing skills. 

1.9. Definition of the Terms 

Test- teach - test approach (TTT):  

  n approach to teaching where learners first complete a task or activity 

without help from the teacher. Then, based on the problems seen, the 

teacher plans and presents the target language. Then the learners do another 

task to practice the new language.” (Raba’  2016  p. 387) 

Writing  

1. A set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a 

systematic way, with the purpose of recording messages which can be 

retrieved by everyone who knows the language in question and the rules 

by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system. (Oxford, 

Blackwell, 1999, P.560) 

2.  A method of representing a language in visual or tactile form, it is a 

system of more or less permanent marks used to represent utterances in 



15 

such a way that can be recovered more or less without the intervention of 

the utterance. (Daniels, Peters, Bright and William, 1996)  

Diagnostic test:  In-depth evaluation with a relatively narrow scope of 

analysis, aimed at identification of a specific condition or problem.‖ 

(Business dictionary, 2016) 

Achievement test: a test designed to measure the effects that learning and 

teaching have on individuals.) Collins English Dictionary) 

 Differentiated instruction: Differentiation means tailoring instruction to 

meet individual needs. Whether teachers differentiate content, process, 

products, or the learning environment, the use of ongoing assessment and 

flexible grouping makes this a successful approach to instruction. 

(Tomlinson, 2000) 

Dynamic assessment:  An interactive process between the examiner and 

examinee with the goal of identifying pathways to the examinee’s success. 

Processes central to dynamic assessment include identifying obstacles to 

more effective learning and performance, finding ways to remove or 

circumvent them, and assessing the effects of removing or circumventing 

obstacles on subsequent learning and performance.” (Haywood and Lidz, 

2007, p.14). 

 

 



16 

The zone of proximal development 

1.  What the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to 

do independently tomorrow” (Kozulin, A., Gindis, B., Ageyev, V., 

Miller, S. 2003, p, 2). 

2. "The distance between the actual development as determined through 

problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more 

capable peers, or what a child is able to do in collaboration today, he 

will be able to do independently tomorrow." (Vygotsky,1978)  

Contrastive analysis:   n inductive investigative approach based on the 

distinctive elements in a language” (Glossary of Linguistic Terms  2004)  

Error analysis: A technique accounted for almost all errors made by the 

second language learners including those that result from the first language 

learning and others which are not related to the learners’ native language. 

(Coder, 1981). 

Intervention:    specific program or set of steps to help a child improve 

in an area of need” (Lee  2015; p. 1). 

1.10.  Summary 

In this chapter, the researcher presented the main components of the 

thesis starting with the introduction of the study. She also presented some 

theories behind the test-teach-test approach and stressed the importance of 

the writing skill. It also included the statement of the problem, the objective 



17 

of the study, the questions of the study, the significance of the study, the 

limitations of the study, the hypotheses of the study, and finally, it 

exhibited the meaning of the vital terms used in the study.  

 

 

 

 



18 

Chapter Two 

Review of Related Literature 

 Introduction 

 Studies Related to Writing 

 Studies Related to the Importance of Writing 

 Studies on the Inadequate Writing Skills and Abilities 

 Studies Related to Methods Used to Improving Writing 

 The Test-Teach-Test Approach 

 Introduction 

 Diagnosing Errors 

 Analyzing Errors 

 The Contrastive Analysis 

 The Error Analysis 

 Intervention: Teaching Phase 

 Examining Achievement 

 Studies That Relate to the Test-Teach-Test Approach 

 Summary 



19 

2.1. Introduction 

The researcher reviewed the previous literature about teaching and 

learning methods and approaches. As a result, she found tremendous 

number of studies about the importance of writing and writing development 

using a massive variety of methods and approaches. On the other hand, 

there were very few studies conducted by educators about the validity of 

the test-teach-test approach in spite of the great role it played in the 

educational process. The previous information provided the researcher with 

a vigorous challenge to penetrate this particular current issue in the field of 

education. Consequently, she aimed at measuring the effect of the test-

teach-test approach on enhancing the students’ writing skills. Accordingly, 

this chapter tried to present studies related to writing, studies related to the 

importance of testing, and studies related to the test-teach-test approach.  

2.2. Studies Related to Writing 

This section consisted of literature and studies related to the 

importance of writing, evidence of the inadequate writing skills among 

students, and some methods used to improve writing.  

 Ramet (2007) Argued  that writing does not appertain only with 

education; it is also crucial in other dimensions as logic, engineering, 

history, ecological issues, psychology, information technology, comics and 

magazines, manufacturing, politics, and even science. So the writer has to 

take the type and age of his readers into consideration and to choose the 

appropriate style of writing for the intended readers in order to attract and 



20 

convince them with the usefulness of the piece of writing. For example, 

anthropomorphism; attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to 

non-human entities, is very attractive for children but might be considered 

trivial for scientists. 

According to Defazio, Jones, Tennant, & Hook (2010), teachers 

consider that writing involves communicating, understanding, applying, 

reflecting, solving problems and synthesizing a new knowledge shown in 

the learner’s scripts while students consider writing a very weary attempt to 

translate their thoughts on a paper. Therefore, teachers should enlighten the 

student with the importance of writing skills. Thus, they work side by side 

with their students to overcome these threats and weaknesses to produce 

skilled writers and effective communicators who are able to influence 

others by their ideas, and attitudes reasonably because written material 

precedes its owner. 

Lagan (2003) addressed writing as a process that includes a series of 

complicated steps. Moreover, students need intensive writing practice just 

as they need in swimming and driving. Thus, Langan did not believe that 

writing skill is an innate skill. He also argued that content is the most 

crucial to writing by which one can exhibit his/her feelings and ideas which 

do not demand punctual grammar, spelling, and punctuation that can be 

dealt with  at the final draft of writing. Moreover, students have to take 

enough time to practice writing, so that they become more competent to 

develop this skill. 



21 

Wakefield (1996) Specified that written documents are significant 

realistic sources of information that enable all stakeholders in the teaching-

learning process; parents, students, curriculum makers, and especially 

instructors make many types of decisions. The data mirror what students 

know or don’t know  accordingly, the teacher has a position that permits to 

set new instructions; developing a detailed lesson plan, content, and 

materials. All in all, written documents such as journals, blogs, stories, 

narratives, letters, and the like facilitate inspection to explore the hidden 

cognitive, intellectual, emotional, and psychological features of their 

composers.  

Harmer (2007) demonstrated a comprehensive vision about writing 

conventions; stating that errors in handwriting, spelling, and even layout 

and punctuation of any new language are committed, to a large degree, as a 

result of the influence of the mother tongue interference which correlated 

with the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Moreover, he addressed in depth 

the different genres of writing such as letters, reports, e-mails, and 

newspaper article. Consequently, he emphasized the importance to realize 

the different styles, the purpose of each, and indeed the intended reader to 

be addressed by any specific piece of writing. As a result, he proposed 

various corresponding activities to enhance writing skills. 

         Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) addressed writing as the most 

appropriate vehicle to tell about one's cognitive development and 

competence degree. Thus, they proposed that individual benefits from 



22 

his/her inner cognitive structure to show prior knowledge through writing, 

which in turns will be umpired according to writing criteria. Moreover, 

knowledge consists of content dimension and rhetorical dimension, which 

express the present the actual knowledge of a topic and the art of 

expressing it by the writer. In addition, Douglas (2002) defined competence 

as integration between grammatical knowledge of lexis and sentence 

structure, textual knowledge of organization; functional knowledge of how 

to use language to indicate progression in ideas; and sociolinguistic 

knowledge of what language is suitable to the situation. 

2.3. Studies Related to the Importance of Writing 

 Sharadgah (2014) stated that writing develops critical thinking, so he 

developed an internet-based writing program then measured the effect of 

the program by a holistic critical thinking scoring rubric. The results of the 

study revealed that English as a second or foreign language  EFL” students 

in the experimental group showed greater improvement in their critical 

thinking skills such as collecting data, synthesizing, and analyzing more 

than the EFL students in the control group who used the traditional method. 

Thus, he recommended that it would be beneficial to replicate this study on 

other groups of learners.  

Hosseini, Taghizadeh, Abedin, and Naseri (2013) examined the 

relationship between the achievement tests cores and writing skill 

proficiency. To do so, they compared four final tests scores and the scores 

of writing ability of the same Iranian EFL students. Hence, the scores 



23 

analysis revealed that writing skills are crucial to achieve better academic 

position and to gain more scores because those who can manifest their 

actual knowledge neatly by writing, have greater opportunity to convince 

their examiners to give them higher scores.  

Graham and Herbert (2011) presented empirical evidence through a 

quasi-experimental study about the impact of writing and writing 

instruction on reading which is considered as the most essential skill in the 

twenty-first century, and a passport to both white and blue-collar jobs ( 

leaders and assistants). As a result, they advised researchers to imply more 

studies to examine the influence of using writing as a tool to enhance 

reading. They also advised teachers to apply writing strategies using the 

appropriate instruments.  

Ramirez and Jones (2013) investigated the effect of writing and 

reading on enhancing grammar and vocabulary, and accordingly second 

language achievement. They tried to examine the usefulness of applying 

recasting stories and essays on beginning learners and found an apparent 

effect in favor of this method. Therefore, they recommended educators to 

try literacy-based teaching especially for beginning- level students. 

2.4. Studies on the Inadequate Writing Skills and Abilities  

Kiliƈ  Genç  and Bada (2016) attempted to investigate the topical 

structure in argumentative essays written by Turkish learners of EFL. They 

aimed to examine three points. Firstly, they examined the Turkish EFL 

learners’ ability to form thematic conjunctions between clauses. Secondly, 



24 

examining the most preferred type of progression. Thirdly, examining the 

linguistic structure they used to produce progression. To achieve this aim, 

the researchers conducted Topical Structure Analysis (TSA).  The analysis 

revealed unsatisfactory results; Turkish EFL learners were not as skillful 

enough as they should be in topical structuring, they used sequential and 

parallel sorts of progression, while extended progression was less common 

in their essays. Finally, they found that the participants of the study mostly 

misused pronouns for parallel progression, whereas they switch to new 

noun phrases for sequential progression. In short, the participants in the 

sample were unable to conduct topical progression properly. Their essays 

were closer to a jumble of sentences more than coherent academic essays. 

Thus, the researchers recommended for more practice in writing. 

Zoubi and Abu-Eid (2014) applied the contrastive analysis hypothesis 

in analyzing the students’ mistakes through collecting written essays 

composed by Jordanian students and found that the students committed 

errors in all linguistic areas. The researchers concluded that the students 

had transformed their realization device of Arabic language structure, 

especially in grammar. Those results ensured the hypothesis of the mother 

tongue influence that stood as a barrier to mastering writing skills even 

within university students. Consequently, faculty should use proper 

strategies and methodologies to overcome these barriers. 

 

 



25 

2.5. Studies Related to Methods Used to Improving Writing 

Raba’ and Dweikat (2016) investigated the influence of English 

teaching forums on improving writing skills of eleventh graders in Habla 

School. The results showed positive influence of using forums for teaching 

English on improving students’ writing skills.  ccordingly  the researchers 

recommended to use forums in teaching writing and also advised the 

ministry of education to organize special training courses for teachers about 

how to use forums. 

Adam and Babiker (2015) investigated the impact of teaching 

literature on developing creative writing from teachers' perspectives. The 

study sample consisted of (50) English language university teachers. The 

results showed that teaching English literature can enhance students' 

creative writing of dramatic scenes, short stories, and develop creative 

imagination. The results also revealed that writing improved the students’ 

language. Moreover, teaching literature caused better benefit than literary 

techniques, speech figures, and literary items in creative writing. 

Ong  (2014) Discussed the students’ difficulties in writing through 

examining (5) pieces of writing samples aiming to remediate the linguistic, 

content, and textual errors committed by those students via process 

approach. After she had analyzed the results before and after using the 

process approach, it was evident to her with regard to her sample study that 

the process approach was suitable to raise the students’ effective writing. 



26 

Accordingly, she recommended applying this approach in the modern 

education system. 

Graham and Perin (2007) lamented the high percentage of low-level 

writing proficiency among students. They believed that the instinct of 

human provokes them to manifest their emotions, intentions, knowledge, 

and thoughts using written format. Moreover, they emphasized writing as a 

necessity and a vehicle for learning, which in, turn leads to supremacy and 

creates respectable ancestors to the following generation. On the contrary, 

students who lack basic standards of writing lose the sense of inquiry, 

curiosity, and even basic human wisdom. 

As a result, they conducted a meta-analysis study to compare the 

results of various useful teaching strategies, approaches, and other helpful 

elements, that hopefully, could serve in improving writing proficiency. 

Taking into consideration the different abilities between students, the meta-

analysis revealed that the strategy of summarization achieved the best 

results in improving the students’ proficiency  then came collaborative 

writing approach, specific product goals, word processing, sentence 

combining, prewriting, inquiry activities, process writing approach, study 

of models, and finally and least effective was writing for content area 

learning approach. 

Monaghan (2007) conducted  theoretical research through reviewing 

the available literature related to the effective Strategies for teaching 

writing in the Evergreen State College. Thus, he had the ability to compare 



27 

and contrast between variety of strategies in teaching writing that enhance 

topics of writing that relate skill to the community; applying writing in real 

life contexts. He found that teachers preferred to employ constructivist 

strategies in spite of the pressure of state authorities that forced them 

implicitly to use traditional methodologies. Furthermore, he claimed that 

effective strategies for teaching writing needed a cohesive curriculum 

based mainly on strengthening the relationship between education and 

social environment, taking into consideration the child’s development level 

and interests as a source of any new educational subject. To a significant 

degree, positively affected by Dewey, the researcher called to tie writing 

not only with writing assignments, but also as integral to practice it in all 

subjects. In conclusion, he recommended applying constructivist 

approaches that took social settings into consideration in improving 

teaching writing. 

2.6. The Test-Teach-Test Approach 

2.6.1. Introduction 

The test-teach-test approach is a complex of sequential steps; 

diagnosing, analyzing, intervening, examining progress through 

achievement tests, and hopefully coming out with a differentiated 

classroom which is the main purpose of this approach. Thus, this section 

tried to discuss the importance of these steps showing the relationship 

between them. 



28 

Tomlinson (2000) called for differentiated instruction to maximize the 

students’ capacity. In other words  realizing the students’ individual needs 

to ensure creating a compass to rational objectives, and accordingly, 

determining the proper avenues of instruction. Hence, the best teacher is 

the one who diagnoses the students’ needs  organizes the learning 

opportunities like an orchestra leader, and manipulates his /her instruction 

to avoid drowning in an annoying standardized traditional class.  And the 

best practice is the one that generates genuine success. Advanced students, 

for example, consider some tasks no more than useless extra work that 

wastes their energy for nothing. Moreover, she supported her claim by 

presenting the various empirical successful experience of organizing a 

differentiated classroom instruction. 

2.6.2. Diagnosing Errors 

Sastoque (2015) Explained that in the test-teach-test approach, the 

teacher gives his students a diagnostic task to complete without any help 

from him/her, relying only on the knowledge they might already have 

earned. The teacher will be able to quantify the needs of his students. 

Hence, he/she can determine the proper teaching styles that support them 

promote proficiency and lead them to self-autonomy. Accordingly, they 

become able to complete their tasks without any external help. 

Diagnostic tests, according to him, are the most inexpensive and the 

most appropriate aid that enables the teacher to delve deeply to find the 

needs of his/her students in a concise time. A test should be designed to 



29 

affect the way teachers conduct their instructions because one primary 

purpose of the tests is to determine the students’ knowledge  skills  and 

weakness in a systematic method away from informal fuzzy expectations or 

judgments that might take months to be confirmed or denied. He also 

believed that a test must address and measure a particular educational 

variable to uncover the students’ abilities  attitudes  or needs.  ccordingly  

the teacher adjusts his/her objective based instruction. Thus, he/she has an 

obvious profound educational evidence that exhibits the students’ failure in 

particular domain. 

 However, he thought that the test should be valid and age-appropriate 

to give an accurate judgment about the students so that the teacher develops 

suitable instructional decisions.  For example, the teacher may ask his/her 

students to compose a job-application letter to specify the writing errors 

committed by his students from the very beginning of the year.  Moreover, 

a diagnostic test has to measure the skills that students are supposed to 

master with regards to curriculum, school objectives, state or district 

criteria which delimit the aspects to be measured by teachers. Accordingly, 

the teachers can set appropriate goals based on a clear idea to plan an 

accurate and useful day-to-day relevant instructions to steer the students to 

master the intended educational variables. 

Popham (2003) believed that at the beginning of the academic year, 

teachers don’t know their students’ needs. Consequently  a pre-assessment 

is precious and helpful for teachers to clarify the students’ expertise. 



30 

Furthermore, to specify where do the students stand and what subskills they 

possess about the new demands of the curriculum, so teachers need not an 

extra time on re-teaching meaningless and irrelevant instructions on skills 

and aspects of knowledge that students have already mastered. On the other 

hand, teachers will isolate the earned skill from the unearned one, then 

devote suitable time to suit the students’ needs by organizing instructions 

and deciding how long it takes to teach each skill. He also believed that 

teachers have to conduct an achievement test to make sure that their 

students have already achieved the intended progress by comparing the 

results of the diagnostic test that governed the course of instructions, and 

the final results in the achievement test at the end of the course.  

Middaugh (2005) mentioned that Taba advised every teacher at all 

levels of schooling to pursue the needs and nature of his/ her students. 

Since the student’ needs are at the forefront of the curriculum development, 

it is essential to focus on improving their abilities and skills to build a 

specified objective based content, various strategies, and beneficial 

pedagogies accordingly. Hence, the teacher can facilitate their learning, and 

help them develop their cognitive and affective strategies. Thus they get 

used to exhibiting their covert abilities and thoughts, emotions, and 

enlivening their capacity to compare and contrast, organize information and 

apply conceptual knowledge in their real life. Afterward, the teacher can 

conduct procedures of evaluation and assessment to ensure that the learning 

outcomes that were in the first place determined by educators according to 



31 

the demands of the community, social disciplines and more importantly the 

needs of the students are achieved.  

Moreover, professionalism is cardinal to Haywood and Lidz (2007). 

As pioneers in this movement, they were even more bias to dynamic 

assessment where teachers had to repeat diagnostic tests over and over to 

determine their students level of proficiency; they also supported Oakland 

(1995) by proclaiming that educators should be more skillful, well-

prepared and gifted to be able to abandon static assessment. Moreover, 

depending on Vygotskey’s theory  they emphasized dynamic assessment to 

identify the barriers that prevent students’ performance improvement  

explaining clearly that dynamic assessment is crucial to the test-intervene-

retest approach. They strongly believed in interaction and in devoting more 

attention to their students’ deficiency about curriculum. Hence  educators 

can launch intervention accordingly to lead their students into autonomy. 

Kester and Gillam (2001) concluded that dynamic assessment is very 

beneficial in providing more specific information about the students’ 

abilities and helping them perform their tasks perfectly which cannot be 

provided by static tests that underestimate the students’ abilities, culture or 

origins. Thus, they suggested dynamic assessment as an alternative to the 

traditional static assessment. 

In other words, diagnostic tests help educators set the point of 

intervention in a complementary and inseparable process calling for 

continuous formative assessment as basic to every specific intervention. 



32 

They even exceeded this point to claim that there is no way but dynamic 

assessment can provide an accurate description of the students’ needs and 

lacks which promote development by spending the least effort to pinpoint 

particular intervention through specific predetermined instructional 

objectives. 

Alderson (2005) lamented the lack of applying effective diagnostic 

tests and also the lack of research about the importance of conducting these 

tests in spite of the crucial role they function. He also provided logical 

reasons to convince the reader of the importance of the diagnostic tests; 

Alderson patronized projects that conduct diagnostic tests such as the 

Language Diagnosis System (DIALANG) test that aims not only to score 

or certify the proficiency of students but also to find out information about 

aspects of weakness or strengths of exams-takers.  

In comparison to contextual diagnostic tests, The National Council of 

Teachers of English published a (Policy brief, 2014, p. 1) complaining 

about standardized tests, which are considered as extra duty aligned with 

instructions  laid on the back of teachers nowadays that in turn, cost them 

extra time at the expense of instruction term. Accordingly, the council 

provided various solutions such as replacing lower-level writing skills 

required in standardized tests with intervention strategies that seek higher-

level writing skills that boost to the students’ proficiency considering their 

present abilities as a focal issue. The policy brief also claimed that teachers, 



33 

under the pressure of standardized tests, tended to squeeze out subjects like 

the foreign language in favor of subjects measured by standard tests. 

In addition, it argued that standardized tests types of questioning did 

not require students to invent their own written prose  Which means that 

students learn little about processes of composing and rhetorical 

dimensions such as audience and purposes of writing. This limitation is 

exacerbated by the increasing reliance of standardized tests on machine 

scoring.” (p.2). 

Moreover, standardized tests limited the students’ learning to 

cognitive aspect away from sociability which disrupted better lifelong 

skills; thus students began to disparage their talents and abilities. 

Unfortunately, teachers found it laborious to nurture the students’ learning; 

simply because the students did not believe in themselves as capable 

persons.  

In conclusion, the Policy concluded that standardized tests in English 

language were  not always valid measures of their ability ” (p. 3). As a 

result, it recommended various assessment tasks that addressed the 

students’ multiple abilities and allowed more time of instruction for 

students who had difficulties in coping with the existing curriculum. 

2.6.3. Analyzing Errors 

Teachers are responsible for diagnosing the  students’ performance in 

order to be able to fill the gaps and to create effective learning that matches 



34 

their needs through remedial exercises that lead to developing their writing 

skills  ( and Verplaetse, 2012) and (Buainain, 2007). Errors in applying a 

second language are not random, Adjemian (1976), and Benmamoun 

(2000) recommended systematic approaches to analyze students’ errors. 

They recommended the contrastive analysis and error analysis in particular 

which became famous not only to linguists as branches of Applied 

Linguistics but also to adequate educators. Therefore, it is very 

indispensable for teachers to be aware of these approaches. Most 

importantly, it is essential to identify what is an error to apply the error 

analysis. With regards, (Cunningworth, 1987, p. 87) identified   errors as 

 systematic deviations from the norms of the language being learned.” 

2.6.4. The Contrastive Analysis  

It illustrated the similarities and differences between languages, which 

made errors committed by students of second language predictable. As a 

result, revising instruction strategies and developing material was 

considered easier and applicable (Erdogan 2005). 

 Based on the contrastive hypothesis, Brown (2000) stated that mother 

tongue plays an essential role in committing errors when applying a second 

or a foreign language. One can not only predict but also describe 

systematically the patterns that may lead to difficulty or easiness in the 

process of learning a second language; learners transfer the structure of 

their mother tongue into the newly acquired one. As a result, students 



35 

found it easier to master similar features of the two languages, while they 

need to make more effort to acquire dissimilar features.  

However, mother tongue may encounter in particular patterns whether 

they are functional, semantic or structural. Students who learn a new 

language, activate the pre-acquired linguistic system of their mother 

tongue. Unfortunately, they are more likely to be subject to invent their 

linguistic system which is neither native nor target language system in 

English as a second language (ESL) classroom.  This fact directs the 

teacher to the most appropriate dimension to analyze his students’ 

linguistic errors. 

 Many studies have been conducted to investigate the truthfulness of 

the effect of the first language on achieving perfection in acquiring a 

second language.   Affandi (2011) provided a detailed analysis between 

English and Arabic relative pronouns; he investigated the similarities and 

differences between them applying a descriptive and contrastive analysis 

format to compare the structure of the two languages. He studied   the kind 

of conjunctions, numbers, and genders, dual and plural, person and thing, 

shilah  changing the form to suit antecedent  and omission” (p 8). 

As a result, he advised teachers and educators to confess that the first 

language affects either positively or negatively the proficiency of the 

second language; whereas similar aspects are easier to be understood, 

different aspects confuse the learners, because they begin to translate their 

previous knowledge of their mother tongue’s structure and apply it in 



36 

forming the sentences of the new language which in most cases leads to 

incorrect structure. And he also advised them to dig into this phenomenon 

to predict the errors that might be committed by their students, in order to 

overcome many obstacles that stand against second language acquisition. 

Moreover, he stressed the importance of enlightening the students with the 

differences as well as similarities between languages to enable them to 

produce appropriate language. 

Abu- Faraj and Ali (2015) examined the impact of Arabic on 

producing fragmented sentences in English. They could predict the most 

common errors committed by the sample students, for example, subject-

verb agreement and article usage. After a systematic analysis, the results 

confirmed the researchers’ predictions. As a result, the researchers advised 

the teachers to mediate their instruction and use the available aids to 

overcome first language interference. 

Abu Rass (2015) aimed to examine paragraph writing problems that 

face the Palestinian Arab students of the first year in TEFL in Beit Berl 

Academic College. She employed the contrastive analysis, the process 

approach, and error analysis, and found that the Arab students transfer the 

Arabic style of writing to English. Accordingly, she applied numerous 

strategies to help the students overcome the first language interference and 

found that the students did not achieve satisfactory improvement. Thus, she 

recommended more extensive practice and continuous feedback from 



37 

teachers to enable the students to recognize the difference between Arabic 

and English style of writing. 

2.6.5. The Error Analysis  

Linguists and educationalists recognized the importance of this theory 

for it states that the errors committed by learners of a foreign language are 

not necessarily a consequence of an erroneous interference of their mother 

tongue language. However, other common reasons cause these errors; 

firstly, unawareness of rule limitation such as misusing auxiliaries. 

Secondly, overgeneralization;  one tends to deviate structure as a result of 

applying the rule of another structure such as forming the past tense adding 

 ed” to irregular verbs. Thirdly  insufficient application of rules; the learner 

becomes unable to develop a specific structure to create an acceptable 

sentence, such as applying the conditional sentences. Fourthly, incorrect 

concepts hypothesized as a result of misleading comprehension of the 

second language concepts (Richards, 1971). Hence error analysis concerns 

with a more comprehensive view of errors; it supplies data about more 

reasons behind committing such errors. 

 Brown (2000) added that many learners suffer personal weaknesses 

or memory shortage, so it is evident that analysis plays a crucial role in 

identifying trouble spots accurately, consequently building remedial 

instruction. However, it is rational that since the error analysis is a 

systematic approach, it consists of a sequence of scientific processes. He 

specified these stages as follows, identifying errors, describing them, being 



38 

able to classify them into categories, after that interpreting the reason 

behind committing such predictable errors.  Accordingly, most of the 

reliable trends of diagnostic tests in teaching a second language stem their 

judgment basically from error analysis theory. 

 For instance, Khansir (2012) concluded that error analysis is a corner 

stone in learning a second language, because errors are integral to language 

acquisition. Thus  it focusses on the learner’s performance and reveals 

spots of success and failure in teaching and learning a second language. 

Therefore, he claimed the usefulness of this theory in identifying 

complexities, changing syllabus, and accordingly improving the teaching 

methodologies in the classroom. Moreover, Khider (2013) examined the 

significance of error analysis in the learners' writing skill and found it 

important in improving and mastering both writing skill and generating 

new language.  

Jabeen, Kazemian, and Mustafai (2015) aimed to question the impact 

of error analysis on determining the proper strategies of teaching a second 

language. They found that students fail to produce proper grammatical 

sentences in English through a writing assignment because they were 

influenced by their first language grammatical rules to a great deal. 

According to the error analysis, the students’ brains resist accepting the 

new rules unless suitable strategies are conducted to provide an effective 

teaching process. As a result, they suggested some strategies to be 

conducted by instructors to help their students beat those obstacles. 



39 

In addition, Mourssi (2013) provided  clear evidence on the 

effectiveness of the error analysis on determining the areas of weakness or 

strengths among students, even in higher levels of education, and 

improving their writing proficiency.  He also argued that errors are crucial 

in the educational process since it proved that 7.3 percent of errors in 

second or foreign language is due to mother tongue interference while there 

are other reasons behind committing these errors such as 

overgeneralizations, rules of communication, transfer of training, and most 

apparently teaching strategies. This fact enabled teachers to determine the 

appropriate scheme and time that should be devoted to each area to be 

mastered by the students. 

2.6.6. Intervention: Teaching Phase 

An intervention is  a set of actions that  when taken, have 

demonstrated ability to change a fixed educational trajectory” (Methe & 

Riley-Tillman, 2008; p. 37). It is also defined as  a specific program or set 

of steps to help a child improve in an area of need” (Lee  2015; p. 1). 

Hence, a teacher tracks his/her students’ needs then sets instructional 

strategies and goals accordingly, taking into consideration that intervention 

is flexible because it can be adjusted to various contexts, the time allowed, 

and degree of progress required ( Lee, 2015).  

Since  Fairness does not mean everyone gets the same. Fairness 

means everyone gets what they need” (Riordan  2010)  Athanases, Bennett, 

& Wahleithner (2013) believed that there are many rational circumstances 



40 

and reasons that should be taken into consideration while planning and 

implementing instruction. Abilities, needs, multiple intelligences, and 

culture of the students play a crucial role in deciding effective teaching 

nowadays. Effective teachers intervene, adapt, reflect, manipulate, and 

change plans accordingly. 

The educational process is an engagement relationship between two 

parties: teachers and learners within a particular context. Teachers can 

collect data through systematic inquiry such as diagnostic tests, or objective 

based tasks then try to align their instruction thoughtfully and consciously  

with the test’ data to tailor successful teaching applying the most 

appropriate pedagogies  (Duffy, 2002). 

Teachers should adjust their instruction to control diversity in the 

classroom. Hence they have to apply monitoring techniques to assess their 

students’ prior knowledge to decide the level, strategy, and duration of 

instruction of each area. For example, teachers should devote more time for 

less adequate students. On the other hand, proficient students who show 

quick progress need either less time or higher level of instruction. 

Moreover, teachers have to observe their students closely to discover their 

preferences and abilities in order to determine the most genuine available 

tools that are supposed to play a crucial role in enhancing the students’ 

achievement (Gettinger & Stoiber, 2012).  

In other words, Armstrong (2009) claimed that the main goal of 

intervention is to allow both strong and weak students yield the same 



41 

harvest using different strategies and approaches. Teachers have to 

contextualize and modify their lesson plans, activities and instructions to 

meet their students’ multiple intelligences in order to nurture these 

intelligences which in turn reinforces their metacognitive awareness about 

new knowledge. 

Since the students’ abilities and multiple intelligences gear the degree 

of easiness or difficulty of any activity, he suggested many strategies and 

lesson plans to fit with all types of intelligences in the class. Thus, he 

discussed the eight intelligences in details; linguistic, logical, spatial, 

bodily, sports, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist 

intelligence. Moreover, he invited teachers to exchange and adopt 

beneficial experiences aiming to enrich the learning process. Otherwise, 

there will be a great gap between the intended goals and the real state of the 

learning process. 

Unfortunately, most of the teachers are stuck on the horns of a 

dilemma and still apply traditional methodologies either because they 

prefer this approach or they are obliged by school administration, 

prescriptive curricula, constricted timelines, standardized testing regimens, 

or policy makers, regardless of learning effectiveness and message 

delivered to the students. Thus, they emphasize only linguistic and logical 

intelligences and overlook the other six intelligences which in turn disrupts 

to a great deal the enhancement of their students’ abilities. Moreover  

traditional instruction may benefit and motivate some students at the 



42 

expense of students who possess other intelligences. As a result, they are 

likely to feel frustrated and underestimated. 

Raba’ and Herzallah (2018) found that Palestinian English curriculum 

suits only standardized tests neglecting the students’ needs which restricts 

genuine learning improvement. Moreover, it does not provide teacher with 

the desired time to apply current strategies. On the contrary, it encourages 

memorization and mimicking the existing information. They also added 

that educators should struggle to form an appropriate curriculum to face the 

existing challenges. 

Bruhwiler and Blatchford (2011) found that both classroom size and 

adaptive teaching competency affect classroom processes and academic 

outcome, they found that better-qualified teachers and smaller classes 

generate better learning outcomes. Thus, they concluded that the class size 

is very crucial in applying adaption techniques because it provides teachers 

with more time and broader  variety of chances to choose the adaption 

strategies whether to form groups, work in pairs or work with individuals 

according to the existing needs. 

Graham, Harris, and Larsen (2001) advised teachers to build a 

coherent, corresponding, extended, comprehensive, and early instructional 

intervention. An outstanding teacher manipulates instruction according to 

his/her distinctive context. In other words, school environment, equipment, 

facilities are not the same everywhere. This fact may make a great 



43 

challenge for teachers, especially poor schools which lack the demanded 

tools, in addition of heterogeneous classes with huge number of students. 

However, they offered teachers some advice to bypass these roadblocks: 

1- Building a positive environment with students to achieve realistic 

goals; there is no place for stigmatizing students because students will 

believe the same either consciously or unconsciously and accordingly 

this will affect their self-esteem, so they will surrender to any difficulty 

very easily. 

2- Intervening early to circumvent remediation problems which can be 

incurable in belated times.  

3- Equalization between formal and informal lessons. Effective 

intervention is flexible to numerous strategies, methods and tools; 

teachers can use educational games, technology, work sheets, drama, 

objective grouping, and one to one guided assistance offered by special 

tutor or more proficient volunteer peers schoolmate. As a result, 

struggling students can catch up with the intended goals.  

4- Instruction has to be curriculum-based in order not to move from one 

level to the next one unless teachers make sure that students have 

mastered the current level.  

5-  Teachers should be tolerant, patient, and wise enough to convince 

themselves and their students that they can win the challenge and 

overcome difficulties if they pay more effort. 



44 

6- Students should be allowed to take decisions and participate in solving 

problems since they are the fulcrum of the educational process. To 

assist their theoretical opinion, the researchers enriched their research 

with four studies about intervening to enhance students’ writing which 

were all successful on the academic and the social levels. 

Wu and Huang (2016) requested  for content adaption that meets the 

current educational situation because appropriate content leads to better 

achievement and better skills improvements. Moreover, it assists in 

avoiding emerging obstacles such as anxiety and frustration. On the other 

hand,   students would  feel demotivated and uninterested in learning 

English as a foreign language if they were taught odd subjects.  

Perner (2004) claimed for differentiated instruction, he concluded that 

there is no one perfect strategy to produce a differentiated classroom. On 

the contrary, it is a contribution of various tools, techniques, and strategies 

put together to deliver suitable content that promotes the students’ 

achievement without  the need to apply non-meaningful, and time-

consuming activities. Since teachers aimed to involve their students in the 

learning process, they had to apply a systematic multi-level instructional 

process. They also had to focus on significant concepts and skills, then 

determine the methods, styles, and modes of instruction, after that 

performing instruction, and finally assessing achievement.  

She also lamented the fact that most teachers are unfair because they 

devote the most of their time to specific groups of students in mixed level 



45 

classes. In other words, the student who showed rapid progress with least 

effort got more attention, ignoring weak students who needed instructional 

adaption, modification, or extra laborious effort to gain meaningful 

outcomes just as their peers do. 

2.6.7. Examining Achievement 

One of the most important systematic tools for measuring learning 

progress and gathering data in most developed nations is the achievement 

test. It provides information about an individual’s accomplishment and 

exposes their difficulties after a teaching period. However, an effective 

achievement test should address particular learning objectives set as a 

consequence of particular circumstances and content standards       

(Johnson, 2014). 

However, they do not decide what students are capable of; they 

evaluate the level of proficiency and ability at a certain moment in various 

educational environments; they can be applied in schools, colleges, and any 

other educational institutions in which students are supposed to be prepared 

to such an experience that is designed to reflect the student’s proficiency 

that should be accustomed of when they complete a phase of learning. 

Furthermore, achievement tests provide accurate and accountable results, 

school ranking, educators’ performance possibilities for parents’ 

intervention, and also value effective and fruitful teaching methods applied 

to involve all students in the academic process including marginalized 



46 

ones, which in turn, hopefully, leads to additional funding and extra 

resources for those methods, (Berry, 2011). 

Bachman and Palmer (2013) put a special formula for testing. 

According to them, there is neither one plus one equals two, nor a fixed 

receipt for an adequate test that functions mainly to mirror the students’ 

language ability and corresponds to non-test-situations rather than to assist 

pedagogical objectives. Since testing philosophy is related to language 

teaching and language use, it needs a competent tester who makes use of 

test’ approaches  issues  designs  purposes  and theories in making firm and 

contextualized decisions through which he/she can overcome dilemmas 

that  fraught testing outcomes. 

 However, applying a test does not inevitably imply it is beneficial and 

metric.  Hence they suggested six essential qualities to ensure an acceptable 

level of test adequateness as a measurement tool: 

1- Reliability: the scores of the tests are fairly relevant when applied by the 

same students under the same conditions in a reasonable time space 

between the test and the re-test even if corrected by different testers. 

2- Validity: designing a test to measure what is supposed to be measured; 

for example, it is better for a grammar test to contain multiple-choice 

questions excluding ambiguous vocabulary.    

3- Authenticity: the test should correspond to the everyday experience of 

the students to promote a positive affective reaction in a semi-screening 



47 

process; in a writing test, the tester may ask the students to summarize a 

previously taught book using their own vocabulary. 

4- Interactiveness: involving the students in the test process through valuing 

their knowledge, metacognitive development, nature, and competence. 

5- Impact: there is a micro-level impact on individuals either they are 

learners or teachers who both get feedback that helps in making 

appropriate decisions according to scores. There is also the macro-level 

impact on society which varies through time and place according to the 

various goals and beliefs. 

6-  Practicality: ways of implementation and management of the test should 

match with human, material, and time resources.           

In addition to the previous qualities, Cumming (2007) suggested objectivity 

as essential quality to mark a test as accepted one; different teachers give 

the same scores to the same answers. 

Koretz (2002) thought that tests are supposed to play a vital role in 

discovering the students’ level of proficiency in any domain in addition of 

judging the teachers and school’s strategies, gains, and norms.  Unluckily, 

based on tremendous studies and surveys in this domain, he was skeptic 

about the credibility of present tests as indicators of actual achievement; he 

described them as naïve, undeveloped, impractical, inadequate, and even 

deceptive. Moreover, tests are unable to reveal the latent proficiency of 



48 

every single student. Thus, he considered the unified achievement tests 

ironic.  

Moreover, he opposed the fact that teachers manipulate instruction to 

match with scoring rubrics, reallocate instruction to match with tests’ 

demands regardless of their usefulness, and tailor teaching subjects and 

material too close to tests purposes and techniques. However, meaningful 

intervention is reasonable, but sometimes teachers go beyond limits, they 

either cheat in distributing scores or provide their students with the right 

answers to the questions  which in turn causes irrational scores’ inflation. 

Still,   he proposed a systematic restricted plan to help specialists 

confront this problem; he advised  educators to relate tests to clear  

curriculum, design appropriate tasks, set  attainable objectives, accept the 

wide range of differences between learners, apply various measurements to 

meet those differences, take into consideration the external factors which 

can distort the test results,  value moderate or even modest progress, be 

consistent in grading and dividing scores, ask for expert guidance, benefit 

from present results to discover the reasons behind failure, finally and most 

importantly, employ other indicators to measure achievement such as 

value-added testing, on-demand, and open-response tasks. 

 Meyer and Dokumaci  (2009) stated that this decade challenged  a 

great shift by applying the Value-Added Testing Model (VAM) which 

emphasized an apple-to-apple comparison; measuring the progress in 

specific domain for the same learners, under the influence of same 



49 

environment in a particular period of time to facilitate a valid and fair 

judgment on the effectiveness of instructional plans, and strategies on the 

students’ learning based on trustworthy data  which, as a result, can help in 

making decisions about the former instruction. Moreover, (VAM) testing 

motivates learners’ improvement and stimulates school improvement by 

giving indications to policy makers to offer extra funding to high-

performing schools, and also to assist to low-performing ones. 

Murphy (2012) considered VAM the most reliable in inquiring 

teacher’s effectiveness, the best attainment-based accountability system, 

thus, rewarding good teachers or replacing poor teachers. Since studies 

proved that teachers have a very powerful effect on students not only in 

basic schools but also in adulthood, Hanushek (2009) found that VAM has 

long-lasting effects on teachers and students’ achievement, then again, he 

doubted all accountability systems even after controlling all external 

variables.  

As a response to the dissatisfaction with traditional testing systems, 

Stecher (1997) preferred to apply several styles of alternative assessment.  

One of these alternatives is the on-demand written tasks in which the 

student is asked to write a particular form of writing; a letter, a story, or an 

essay to deliver specific purposes such as entertaining, persuading, 

informing, applying for a job, and writing a portfolio taking the audience 

into consideration. Accordingly, there is a comprehensive rubric of scoring 

that evaluates every aspect of the student’s work; content, structure, and 



50 

conventions within a limited time to complete the task. Thus, this task 

determines the student’s ability in writing independently, and accordingly 

promotes this ability as a vehicle to convey a certain message.  

He also suggested the open-response task as another alternative for 

traditional assessment in which the student apply a concept in a new 

situation or context in a short time. In this content-related task, the student 

is expected to describe, clarify, value, compare, contrast, guess, or 

summarize, etc. Furthermore, open-response task can develop into a senior 

project about a single topic that takes a longer time to be accomplished.  

2.6.8. Studies Related to the Test-Teach-Test Approach 

 Ghent (2007) designed a quiz to provoke content application and 

critical thinking for her students. The results were disappointing, so she 

submitted every individual his/her feedback. After that, she conducted with 

her colleague specific rubrics that focus on specific learning objectives 

based on the students’ diagnostic information generated from the test. The 

results showed that students needed to improve their skills in processing 

information. Accordingly, the faculty seceded to emphasize practicing the 

revealed weak points; practicing graphic quizzes, doing further quantitative 

tasks in the lab making sure that the students have the correct answer in 

final position. At the end of the course, they gained satisfactory results; the 

students were able to build up their graphic rather than filling up 

incomplete ones, or correcting wrong data. With regard to the sample she 



51 

used, the researcher concluded that test-teach-test approach could help in 

transferring students from memorization to reflection level. 

Peña, Gillam, and Bedore (2014) found that students who  received 

individualized intervention as a result of analyzing the specific needs of 

each, showed apparent responsiveness to instruction on vocabulary. Thus, 

they were more acquainted to story narrating  than students who received 

static instruction. As a result, they recommended the test-teach-test to help 

the students get better results in learning English as a second language. 

With the help of seven colleagues, McCaul (2015) prepared an official 

dichotomy International English Language Testing System (IELTS) for 

speaking and writing test at Eastern International University. This test was 

mainly designed to diagnose the learners' knowledge system which enabled 

the faculty to decide the students’ required awareness of particular patterns. 

The teachers developed a need analysis according to the results of the tests 

and informed the learners with their mistakes. Moreover, the researcher 

developed oral interviews and a questionnaire divided into three principles; 

needs, lacks, and wants to collect qualitative as well as quantitative data 

from students. The results showed that 41% of the students needed more 

help with productive skills, 71% of them believed that they lack application 

of their knowledge especially grammar and lexis. Furthermore, they 

claimed to be familiar with marking criteria. These results were considered 

basics to his teaching strategies that included more precise instruction and 

various skills-based tasks. At the end of the course, ILET examiners 



52 

designed an achievement test that included many types of application on 

productive skills. The final results showed the need for extra instruction on 

speaking and writing. 

Bolen (2013) applied the test-teach-test approach in South Korean 

University. At first, she prepared a diagnostic test and distributed it to her 

students. According to the results, she was able to divide instruction time 

between easy and complex patterns allotting more time for more complex 

patterns. Finally, she announced the fruitfulness of the (TTT).  

Hasson, Camilleri, Jones, Smith, and Dodd (2012) found that bilingual 

students who were taught through employing dynamic assessment applying 

the test-teach-test format did greater change in accordance to acquiring 

English in areas of vocabulary, sentence structure, and phonology. 

However, the retest revealed different forms of errors that needed a 

different  form  of intervention which in turns  assisted the importance of 

the test-teach-test approach in discovering  the detailed need of every 

student in order to promote his/her improvement. 

In conclusion, the researcher found it commonsensical to investigate 

the effect of this approach in Palestine, and particularly in East Jerusalem. 

The main motive for this desire was the lack of the test-teach-test approach 

application in this region according to her knowledge. She was also 

convinced to utilize the current methods of assessment such as the (VAM), 

open-response task and on-demand written tasks to overcome the 



53 

undeveloped, impractical, and inadequate traditional systematic 

assessment. 

Moreover, the researcher decided to take advantage of the contrastive 

analysis and error analysis in diagnosing and analyzing the students’ errors, 

in language, in order to build a solid and reliable foundation to the results 

of her study. Thus, to be able to announce effectiveness of the intended 

approach, and accordingly, to proclaim acceptable conclusions and 

recommendations.  

2.7. Summary 

This chapter consisted of literature and studies related to the 

importance of writing, evidence of the inadequate writing skills among 

students, and some methods used to improve writing. Moreover, it 

consisted of detailed literature and studies related to the test-teach-test 

approach. Since it is a comprehensive process that depends on diagnosing, 

analyzing, intervening, examining progress through achievement tests, the 

researcher tried to discuss the importance of these steps showing the 

relationship between them. Finally, the researcher tried to express her view 

briefly about this issue.   

 

 



54 

Chapter Three 

Research Methodology 

 Introduction 

 Questions of the Study 

 Methodology  

 Variables of the Study 

 Limitations of the Study 

 Instrument Validity and Reliability  

 Data Analysis  

 Ethical Considerations 

 Originality and Limitations of Methodology 

 Pilot Study  

 The Study Approach 

 Summary 

 

 

 

 

 

 



55 

3.1 Introduction 

This study aims to explore and discuss the research method that was 

carried out to achieve the objectives of the study and to answer its 

questions through discussing the method and approaches that were 

followed in this thesis. Besides, discussing the settings of the study, sources 

of the information, population and sample of the study, highlighting 

validity and the reliability considerations, and finally, presenting the data 

analysis method and the limitations of the research. 

The researcher in this chapter explained and elaborated on the 

methodology applied to answer the research questions stated in this thesis. 

In detail, the research strategy and design was described and the choice of 

the research method was justified. Furthermore, the research design 

( blueprint of research”) deals with the logical not the logistical problem of 

the thesis and is thus about choosing the appropriate dimensions and units 

of the phenomenon to be investigated (Ghauri 2004). 

3.2 Methodology  

To investigate the effect of applying the test-teach-test approach in 

improving the students’ English language writing skills in East Jerusalem, 

the researcher used two tools. The first one was quasi-experimental study 

that engaged quantifying through the assistance of statistics. Data was 

collected and transformed into numbers that were empirically examined to 

draw conclusions from the results gained. The second one was interviewing 

teachers normally based on numerical interpretations. However, it did  not 



56 

depend on statistics or numbers; Qualitative methods concentrate on 

realizing, interpretation, observations in natural settings and closeness to 

data with a sort of insider view (Ghauri, 2004). According to Bryman and 

Bell (2007), qualitative research is appropriate for research in social 

sciences, languages and other related fields. On the other hand, a 

qualitative approach was more suitable to achieve the objectives of this 

study; the data was collected through asking 58 students from the ninth 

grade to conduct a diagnostic formal letter-writing test before they received 

any instruction; they were asked to write a letter that consisted of sixty to 

seventy words. The researcher measured the students’ abilities  points of 

weakness, and strengths. The letter was evaluated using specified writing 

rubrics (Module C) and according to error analysis and contrastive analysis 

hypothesis. According to the investigated result, the researcher developed a 

specified instruction aiming to handle each spot of weakness with suitable 

teaching style and proper timing. On the other hand, the researcher exposed 

the students in the control group to most of the writing rubrics devoting 

similar timing to each rubric. Furthermore, an achievement test was 

conducted by both groups to measure the effect of applying the intended 

approach. 

Qualitative approach of study was used to get detailed data about the 

teachers` attitudes towards using the test-teach-test approach and to what 

extent they use this approach to enhance students` achievement in English 

language. 



57 

3.3 Variables of the Study  

The independent variable is applying the test-teach-test approach in 

teaching English writing. The dependent variable is enhancing writing skill. 

The statistics used the t-test. 

3.4 Limitations of the Study  

This study was conducted in the second semester in the scholastic year 

2016-2017. It was conducted in one government school in East Jerusalem 

 Shu’fat basic school for girls”. The study included (58) female students in 

the ninth grade, divided into two groups. Twenty-nine of the students 

constituted the experimental group that applied the pre-test as well as the 

following instructions according to the test-teach-test approach, while the 

second group was the control group that applied the pre-test but continued 

to learn with the traditional way. The population of the study was the 

students of the ninth grade in East Jerusalem during the second semester of 

the academic year 2016/2017 which was (1557) students. Moreover, the 

researcher interviewed a sample of ten English teachers from several 

schools in Jerusalem. 

3.5 Validity and Reliability of the Instrument  

Reliability and validity are basic requirements for conducting a 

research as these measures assist to specify the objectivity, trustworthiness 

and credibility of the research.  



58 

As for the current study, the researcher adapted a formal letter writing 

task for both the pre and the post-test which were scored according to” 

Rubric for Assessing the Written Task - New Module C”  the researcher 

also created questions for the interview which were reviewed by a jury 

specialists in the field of teaching English at An-Najah University who 

suggested some modification which were taken into consideration. 

3.6 Data Analysis  

The researcher in this study used both quantitative analysis and 

thematic analysis. The data of the study was analyzed through using the 

Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPSS version 22 as a data analysis 

type, because it is an easy tool to analyze the data. The researcher used 

means, standard deviation, t- test and ANCOVA to clarify the results of the 

study. 

The scores for the students’ writings in both pre- and post-tests were 

collected and marked by the researcher using  Rubric for Assessing the 

Written Task - New Module C for Students Studying in the Tenth Grade 

2014”. A higher score in the post-tests would indicate that a student’s 

achievement had improved. It was important to specify whether any 

improvement in students’ writing from pre-test to post-test was the result of 

their involvement in the effect of applying the test-teach-test approach in 

enhancing the students’ English language writing skills in east Jerusalem, 

rather than in writing alone. Thus, in addition to the independent t-test used 

to investigate the difference between the mean in both the experimental 



59 

group and control groups, the researcher used a paired t-test to investigate 

the difference between the mean in the pre-test and that in the post-test in 

the same group (e.g., the pre-test and post-test results of individual 

members of the experimental group were compared). The aim of using a 

paired t-test was to ascertain the Pearson correlation between dependent 

and independent variables and to determine whether there were significant 

differences or relationships between the two variables. 

EG: O1X O2  

CG: O1O2  

O1: Pre Test  

O2: Post Test  

X: Treatment  

The researcher also used interviews with teachers to build an idea and 

awareness about to what extent English teachers use the test-teach-test 

approach and what their opinions are towards this approach in teaching 

English. A qualitative data consisted of open-ended information that the 

researcher collected through interviews with participants. The general, 

open ended questions asked throughout these interviews permitted the 

participants to supply answers in their own words.  

The analysis of the qualitative data mainly followed the path of 

aggregating the words into categories of information and presenting the 



60 

diversity of ideas gathered throughout data collection. Qualitative approach 

basically clarified the relationship between influences and actions. The 

main objective of the qualitative approach was to interpret and explain 

various scenarios that may take place under various conditions. 

Furthermore, interviews were arranged with English teachers from different 

schools in Jerusalem city. Qualitative approach was followed when the 

researcher aimed to build knowledge based on a constructivist perspective 

such as individual experience. One of the most important strategies used to 

collect the needed information and data is multiple cases study where the 

researcher has minimum control over the events of the study, or when using 

real-life context (Creswell, 2003). 

The researcher used semi-structured interview questions. These 

questions were reviewed by the supervisor of the study and other 

professional on the research. 

The researcher used the thematic analysis to provide a detailed 

comprehensive analysis for the themes created. While thematic analysis is 

alike to content analysis, it delves deeper in the qualitative aspects of the 

material analyzed (Yardley and Marks 2004). Thematic analysis was used 

to analyze qualitative data by creating themes (Daly, Kellehear, & 

Gliksman, 1998). It provided richness for the description of the collected 

data. The usage of this method went beyond counting words and phrases; it 

helped in specifying relationships and comparing themes frequencies 



61 

(Guest, Macqueen, & Namey, 2012). Since the study was deductive, data 

analysis was connected to previous studies. 

3.7 Ethical Considerations 

Written consent was obtained from each subject to participate in the 

study. Each subject was informed about the purpose, and the nature of the 

study. The subjects were informed that their participation was totally 

voluntarily and confidentiality and anonymity of the subjects were assured. 

3.8 Originality and Limitations of Methodology  

This was one of the pioneering studies of its type conducted in 

Jerusalem schools’ context. The aim of this study was to find out the effect 

of  applying the test- teach -test approach in enhancing the students’ 

English language writing skills in east Jerusalem. Furthermore, the 

researcher aimed to explore the teachers` attitudes towards using the test-

teach-test approach. The experimental approach of this thesis included pre-

tests and post-tests involving writing a formal letter. Furthermore, the 

descriptive approach used individual and private interviews with teachers. 

The limitations of the thesis involved the adopted methodology that 

was limited to writing scores and interviews with English teachers, 

However, other instruments were not used: for example, diaries and 

observations. Other limitation was that this study was undertaken in 

Jerusalem schools, and this may affect inversely on the generalizability of 



62 

the results and the possibility of applying the study in other, similar 

teaching situations.  

3.9 Pilot Study  

The researcher applied a pilot study to try the efficacy of the study 

instrument, and to edit it before the actual implementation. The researcher 

chose random sample of fourteen students from Shu’fat Basic School 

which resembled about 10% of the ninth graders in that school, which in 

turn, resembles about 1% of the population of the study. The sample 

applied the pilot test on March 26th of the scholastic year of 2016-2017. 

These students were asked to write a formal letter and were informed about 

the aims of the pilot study. During the pilot study, the researcher noticed 

the following points:  

1 The results showed that the students committed errors in all writing 

domains 

2 There were various types of writing errors related to the influence of 

mother tongue, while other errors were not related to the influence of 

the mother tongue. Therefore, the researcher decided to apply the 

contrastive and error analysis in analyzing the students’ errors.  

3 The researcher noticed some common errors and individual errors 

among the sample. Hence, she decided to apply individual and group 

work as demanded in the experimental study. 

 



63 

3.10 The Procedures of the Study 

 fter getting permission from Shu’fat Basic School  the researcher 

conducted a meeting with the principal of the school, the supervisor, and 

the teacher of the English language who facilitated the researcher work and 

gladly provided help. Then the researcher investigated the available 

resources in the school to make positive use of them in building her 

instructional plans. The school was rich of equipment resources such as a 

computer lab, internet, smart boards, printers, and projectors. Moreover, the 

book adapted in this grade was  Top Score 3”  besides, the student were 

supposed to begin unit 9 which focused on traveling and adventure to be 

ended by  writing  a formal letter using the vocabulary from the unit. Thus, 

the teacher, supervisor, and the researcher agreed on writing a formal letter 

as a suitable task for both the pre and post-tests. Furthermore, the tasks 

were checked by a jury of experts at An-Najah National University who 

suggested some modifications, such as adding the seventh question in the 

interview, which were taken into consideration. In addition, there were four 

classes in the ninth grade and the researcher chose two randomly, one was 

the experimental group, and the other was the control group. 

After the pre-test  the researcher analyzed the studen