An-Najah National University Faculty of Graduate Studies Appraisal of Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors Affecting Wastewater Reuse in the West Bank Prepared by Samer "Mohammad Adnan" Fareed Al- Kharouf Supervised By Dr. Marwan Haddad Dr. Hafez Shaheen Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in Water and Environment, Faculty of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine 2003 بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم "وقل اعملوا فسيرى هللا عملكم ورسوله المؤمنون" صدق هللا العظيم قرآن كريم Appraisal of Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors Affecting Wastewater Reuse in the West Bank Prepared by Samer "Mohammad Adnan" Fareed Al-Kharouf This thesis was defended successfully on 25/1/2004 and approved by: Committee Members Signature 1. Dr. Marwan Haddad ………………………………………… 2. Dr. Issam A. Al - Khatib ………………………………………… 3. Dr. Hafez Shaheen ………………………………………… 4. Dr. Anan Jayyousi ………………………………………… Dedicated to My Parents, Wife, Daughters and Brothers ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During the preparation of this thesis, I had the opportunity to be assisted by many individuals. My sincere thanks are to Prof. Marwan Haddad for his valuable help and guidance provided in all aspects involved in this study. Also my sincere appreciation to Dr. Hafez Shaheen for his support, and to the staff of PECDAR who helped me distribute the questionnaires. My sincere grateful to Dr. Issam A. Al Khatib and Dr. Anan Jayyousi of the committee members for their great manners, knowledge and continuous cooperation. My sincere gratitude for my parents, wife and brothers for their encouragement which gave me the strength to continue. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements…………………………………………………... I Table of Contents……………………………………………………. II List of Tables…………………………………………………………. V List of Figures………………………………………………………... VII Abstract………………………………………………………………. I X 1. Introduction……………………………………………………... 1 1-1 General………………………………………………………... 1 1-2 Practices in the Middle East Region………………………….. 4 1-3 Problems……………………………………………………… 5 1-4 Importance……………………………………………………. 6 1-5 Objectives……………………………………………………... 7 1-6 Hypothesis…………………………………………………….. 8 2. Methodology……………………………………………………... 11 2-1 Research Program…………………………………………….. 11 2-2 Field Survey…………………………………………………… 11 2-2-1 Questionnaires Design………………………………………… 12 2-2-1-1Target Group………………………………………………….. 13 2-2-1-2 Testing the Hypothesis…………………………………… 16 2-2-1-3 Sample Size and Distribution………………………………… 22 2-2-1-4 Questionnaire Procedure……………………………………... 26 2-2-2 Data and Data Analyses ………………………………………. 30 2-2-3 Difficulties Faced During Field Survey Implementation 31 3. Background………………………………………………………. 34 3-1 General Background …………………………………………. 34 3-2 Possibilities of Reuse…………………………………………... 35 3-3 Public Acceptance……………………………………………... 37 3-4 Socio-Economic Considerations in the study area……………... 38 3-5 Political Considerations………………………………………... 40 3-6 Health Considerations…………………………………………. 44 3-7 Institutional and Legal Considerations………………………… 45 4. Assessment of Wastewater and Water Situation………………… 47 4-1 Wastewater Collection Systems………………………………. 47 4-2 Wastewater Current Reuse in the West Bank ………………... 57 4-3 Status of Wastewater Treatment in the West Bank…………... 58 4-4 Wastewater Composition in the West Bank………………….. 64 4-5 Water Resources in the West Bank…………………………… 68 4-5-1 Surface Water……………………………………………….. 68 4-5-2 Ground Water………………………………………………… 68 4-6 Water Supply-Demand Gap…………………………………… 70 4-7 Water Distribution Networks in the West Bank Major Cities..... 71 4-8 Water and Wastewater Damages……………………………... 76 5. Data Analyses and Hypothesis Testing……………..................... 78 5-1 Public and Farmers………………………………...................... 78 5-1-1 Social Aspects……………………………………..................... 78 5-1-2 Economic Aspects……………………….................................... 83 5-1-3 Religious and Cultural Aspects……………............................... 84 5-1-4 Health Aspects………………………......................................... 85 5-1-5 Political Aspects……………………………………………….. 87 5-1-6 Technical Aspects………………………………........................ 89 5-1-7 Institutional Aspects…………………………………………… 91 5-1-8 Public Awareness and Mass Media……………………………. 93 5-1-9 Hypothesis Findings of the Farmers and Publics……………… 94 5-2 Experts and Institutions……………………………………….. 111 5-2-1 Social Aspects…………………………………………………. 111 5-2-2 Economic Aspects……………………………........................... 113 5-2-3 Religious and Cultural Aspects………………………………... 114 5-2-4 Health Aspects…………………………………………………. 114 5-2-5 Political Aspects……………………………………………….. 116 5-2-6 Technical Aspects……………………………………………… 116 5-2-7 Institutional Aspects…………………………………………… 120 5-2-8 Public Awareness and Mass Media……………………………. 121 5-2-9 Hypothesis Findings of the Experts and Institutes……………… 121 6. Guidelines for a Strategic Plan for Wastewater Reuse…………… 135 6-1 General……………………………………….............................. 135 6-2 Creation of Enabling Environment…………………………….. 135 6-3 Proposed Institutions to Manage the Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Sector 137 6-4 Public Awareness and Acceptance 138 7. Conclusions and Recommendations…………………………….... 142 7-1 Conclusions………………………………………...................... 142 7-2 Recommendations………………………………....................... 144 References…………………………………………………………….. 146 Appendix-1………………………………………………..................... 150 Appendix-2……………………………………………………………. 186 Appendix-3……………………………………………………………. 221 Appendix-4……………………………………………………………. 259 Summary in Arabic…………………………………………………... B List of Tables Table 3.1: Quality Criteria of Treated Wastewater Effluent to be Reused for Agricultural Irrigation 36 Table 4.1: Existing Wastewater Collection Systems in the Main Cities of the West Bank 48 Table 4.2: Existing and Proposed Wastewater Treatment Systems and there Efficiencies in the Main Cities of the West Bank 65 Table 4.3: Characteristics of Raw Wastewater in the West Bank Major Cities 67 Table 4.4: Basic information About Basins in the West Bank 70 Table 4.5: Gap Between Water Demand and Available Water Resources in the Palestinian Territories 71 Table 4.6: Direct Damages in the Water and Wastewater Sectors Resulting from Israeli Incursions 76 Table 5.1-1: General Information about Public Respondents Distribution of Public Respondents within Districts 81 Table 5.1-2: General Information about Farmers Respondents 82 Table 5.1-3: Hypothesis Testing results from farmers and public perception questionnaires 95 Table 5.1-4 Results of Hypothesis Number 1 97 Table 5.1-5 Results of Hypothesis Number 2 97 Table 5.1-6 Results of Hypothesis Number 3 97 Table 5.1-7 Results of Hypothesis Number 3 98 Table 5.1-8 Results of Hypothesis Number 3 98 Table 5.1-9 Results of Hypothesis Number 3 98 Table 5.1-10 Results of Hypothesis Number 4 99 Table 5.1-11 Results of Hypothesis Number 5 99 Table 5.1-12 Results of Hypothesis Number 6 104 Table 5.1-13 Results of Hypothesis Number 7 104 Table 5.1-14 Results of Hypothesis Number 8 105 Table 5.1-15 Results of Hypothesis Number 9 105 Table 5.1-16 Results of Hypothesis Number 10 106 Table 5.1-17 Results of Hypothesis Number 11 106 Table 5.1-18 Results of Hypothesis Number 12 107 Table 5.1-19 Results of Hypothesis Number 13 108 Table 5.1-20 Results of Hypothesis Number 15 108 Table 5.1-21 Results of Hypothesis Number 14 109 Table 5.1-22 Results of Hypothesis Number 16 110 Table 5.2-1a General Information about Respondents Experts 112 Table 5.2-2 Hypothesis Testing Results from Experts and Institutes Perception Questionnaires 122 Table 5.2-3 Results of Hypothesis Number 1 124 Table 5.2-4 Results of Hypothesis Number 2 124 Table 5.2-5 Results of Hypothesis Number 3 124 Table 5.2-4a Results of Hypothesis Number 4 125 Table 5.2-4b Results of Hypothesis Number 4 125 Table 5.2-5a Results of Hypothesis Number 5 125 Table 5.2-5b Results of Hypothesis Number 5 126 Table 5.2-5c Results of Hypothesis Number 5 126 Table 5.2-5d Results of Hypothesis Number 5 126 Table 5.2-6a Results of Hypothesis Number 6 127 Table 5.2-6b Results of Hypothesis Number 6 127 Table 5.2-7 Results of Hypothesis Number 7 127 Table 5.2-8 Results of Hypothesis Number 8 127 List of Figures Figure 4.1: Percentages of Connected Population with Sewage Collection System in the Main Cities of the West Bank 49 Figure 4.2: Expected Gap Between Demand and Supply of Water within the Period 1997 to 2020 72 Figure 4.3: Damages in Wastewater and Water Sectors Due to Israeli Incursions 77 Figure 5.1.1: Hypothesis 1 (Public and Farmers) 100 Figure 5.1.2: Hypothesis 2 (Public and Farmers) 100 Figure 5.1.3: Hypothesis 3 (Public and Farmers) 101 Figure 5.1.4: Hypothesis 3 (Public and Farmers) 101 Figure 5.1.5: Hypothesis 3 (Public and Farmers) 102 Figure 5.1.6: Hypothesis 3 (Public and Farmers) 102 Figure 5.1.7: Hypothesis 7 (Public and Farmers) 103 Figure 5.1.8: Hypothesis 8 (Public and Farmers) 103 Figure 5.2.1: Hypothesis 1 (Experts and Institutional ) 128 Figure 5.2.2: Hypothesis 2 (Experts and Institutional ) 128 Figure 5.2.3: Hypothesis 3 (Experts and Institutional ) 129 Figure 5.2.4a: Hypothesis 4 (Experts and Institutional ) 129 Figure 5.2.4b: Hypothesis 4 (Experts and Institutional ) 130 Figure 5.2.5a: Hypothesis 5 (Experts and Institutional ) 130 Figure 5.2.5b: Hypothesis 5 (Experts and Institutional ) 131 Figure 5.2.5c Hypothesis 5 (Experts and Institutional ) 131 Figure 5.2.5d: Hypothesis 5 (Experts and Institutional ) 132 Figure 5.2.6a: Hypothesis 6 (Experts and Institutional ) 132 Figure 5.2.6b: Hypothesis 6 (Experts and Institutional ) 133 Figure 5.2.7: Hypothesis 7 (Experts and Institutional ) 133 Figure 5.2.8: Figure 6.1: Figure 6.2: Hypothesis 8 (Experts and Institutional ) Guidelines for a Strategic Plan for Wastewater Reuse Proposed Institutions to Manage Wastewater Sector 134 140 141 Abstract The reuse of treated wastewater offers opportunities of reducing demand on scarce potable water resources, especially within the semi-arid environment of the West Bank. The benefit of such additional supplies of water is further augmented by a reduction in the disposal of raw wastewater to the nearby wadis existing in the West Bank. Importantly, social acceptance issues may pose a barrier to the effective use of this resource should the concept not be comprehensively presented. This research highlights the potential for reuse of wastewater, identifies the areas of concern, and examines the most important factors that affect the wastewater in the Palestinian Territories, particularly in the West Bank. The research was conducted in the West Bank by applying questionnaires to different levels of the Palestinian community. The target groups were classified into four categories of different characteristics. The questionnaires included several questions which discuss several factors that may affect the concerns and hence the acceptance of the West Bank community. The most important factors that were taken into consideration are the social, religion, economic, health, political situation in the Palestinian Territories, scarce fresh water in the area in addition to the institutional situation related to water and wastewater sectors. The questionnaires were collected and analyzed. Several factors were found to be interacted and affect the community opinion. Recommendations were given at the end of the study. It was generally found that religion and traditions have negative effect of the acceptance to the wastewater reuse. In this context, the psychological factor has a negative effect on the opinion of the community. The public awareness is weak, the information provided to the community is not sufficient. Most of the respondents accepted the reuse if this would provide them with additional water quantities. Acceptability of reusing treated effluent decrease by increasing the opportunity to be utilized in human contact purposes or in unrestricted agriculture. People seem do not understand the religious opinion of the reuse. Most of the respondents of the four types considered the treated effluent unclean from a religious thinking. Chapter 1 Introduction 1-1 General With increasing global population, its living needs, and the qualitative and quantitative limitations in water resources availability, the gap between the water supply and demand is widening and is reaching such alarming levels. In some parts of the world these water gaps are posing a threat to human existence. This gap resulted in shortage of fresh water to be used in agricultural and other non-human purpose. As an example showing the severity of water scarcity in number, in China, a study conducted by the World Bank calculated an annual deficit of 37,000 MCM of water. Score of other countries are running up regional water deficits. A release of the United Nations predicted that a severe water shortage for about 2.7 billions people is expected to occur in the year 2025 (Kertschmer, Ribbe and Gaese, 2003). This includes nearly all of those in Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, India, and the United States (Earth Policy Institute, 2002). A rough estimate indicates that at least 20 million hectares in 50 countries are irrigated with raw or partially treated wastewater (Hussain,I. Raschid, L. 2001). In Palestine, for example, the gap between demand and supply is expected to reach to 238 MCM in 2005, and to 341 MCM in 2010 (PECDAR, 2001). Scientists around the world are working on new ways of conserving water and bridging the water gap. One of these ways is to recycle the wastewater and reuse the treated effluent. Several methods were tested in order to bring an effluent quality convenient for human use in different purposes such as in irrigation, industrial and other non-household purposes (Hussain,I. Raschid, L. 2002). In general, wastewater comprises liquid wastes generated by households, industry, commercial sources, as a result of daily usage, production and consumption activities. Treated wastewater can be used for irrigation and other ecosystem services. Its reuse can deliver positive benefits to the farming community, society, and municipalities. Reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture or other purposes will replace a sizable volume of fresh water and save or divert them to other uses or sectors in need. Wastewater reuse also causes negative effects on humans and ecological systems such as biological contamination, aesthetic problems, salt and solid build up in irrigated soils, which need to be identified and continuously assessed. The disposal of wastewater is a major problem facing the municipalities, particularly in the case of metropolitan areas in undeveloped countries. The metropolitan areas are of limited spaces for land-based treatment and disposal. On the other hand, wastewater is also a supplementary water source that can be utilized in productive uses. In both developed and developing countries, the most prevalent wastewater disposal practice is the land application of municipal wastewater (both treated and untreated) (Hussain,I. Raschid, L. 2001). In developed countries where environmental standards are applied, much of the wastewater is treated prior to use for irrigation of fodder, fiber and seed crops and, to a limited extent, for the irrigation of orchards, vineyards, and other crops. Other important uses of wastewater include, recharge of groundwater, landscaping (golf courses, freeways, playgrounds, schoolyards and parks), industry, construction, dust control, wildlife habitat, improvement and aquaculture (Hussain,I. Raschid, L. 2002). In developing countries, though standards are yet set, these are not always strictly adhered to. Wastewater, in its untreated form, is widely used for agriculture and aquaculture and has been the practice for centuries in some countries (Hussain,I. Raschid, L. 2002). Before one can indorse wastewater as a means of increasing water supply, thorough analysis must be taken from an economic perspective as well. Moreover, the social and ecological impacts of wastewater reuse need to be evaluated (Hussain,I. Raschid, L. 2001). Many countries wish to increase fresh water supplies to domestic, and industrial usages, and at the same time, expand irrigated agriculture. In order to fulfill this demand, one specific component is to increasingly reuse domestic wastewater, for industry (Kertschmer, Ribbe and Gaese, 2003). In Palestine, which is a semi arid country, has an average annual population growth at 3.2% (PCPS, 1997). It has one of the highest average population growth rates in the world. The increase in the water demand, the limited available water supply, possible contamination of ground water, uneven distribution of water resources between the Israelis and the Palestinians and the periodic droughts put the Palestinians on the track of searching for innovative sources of water supply. These resulted in very low per capita water availability. Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza are currently using annually 246 MCM for their domestic, industrial and agricultural needs. Israel consumes 1959 MCM. The increase in demand due to population growth in Palestine is estimated at 300% (Passia).At present, the water consumption of the Palestinian population is approximately 55 l /c/d, 55% of the WHO minimum standards (B.A.A.A. Zahra, 2000). Palestine should develop all of its conventional water resources in a carefully planned program. This program should be designed to achieve the maximum development of the country’s agricultural potential. Accordingly, wastewater reuse as an additional source of water should be considered as an important component of the management of the Palestinian water resources. It can be considered as a reliable and sustainable water source, which will augment the natural resources. 1-2 Practices in the Middle East Region Countries in the Middle East region which practice wastewater treatment and reuse include Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE and Egypt. However, only Israel and Tunisia, and to a certain extent, Jordan, already practice wastewater treatment and reuse as an integral component of their water management and environmental protection strategies. About eighty percent of Israel’s wastewater is treated. In Tunisia, treated effluent with a total flow of 250 m3 / d is used to irrigate about 4500 ha of orchards (citrus, grapes, olives, peaches, pears, apples, pomegranate), fodder, cotton, cereals, golf courses and lawns (Farouki Naser, 1999). In Jordan, all of the treated wastewater collected from the As-Samra treatment plant (serving greater Amman area) is blended with fresh water from the King Talal reservoir and used for unrestricted irrigation downstream in the Jordan Valley (Farouki Naser, 1999). 1-3 Problems The main problem with wastewater reuse is the threat to public health and soil and water if treated wastewater reuse is not done carefully. While the main impact on health in developing countries from wastewater reuse is from helminthic diseases, microbial pathogens are the second largest threat. The worst case situation is when untreated wastewater is used to irrigate vegetables or salad crops eaten raw. This practice resulted in cholera outbreak in Amman in 1981(Farouki Naser, 1999), and in Gaza in October and November 1994 (PECDAR, 1994). In the West Bank, The Palestinian National Authority prohibits using raw wastewater in irrigation. However, there are many examples of this on- going practice. For example, due to water scarcity, the irrigation of market vegetables such as eggplant and cucumber with raw wastewater flowing the Kedron Valley, West Bank (Farouki Naser, 1999). These raw wastewaters are generated and discharged from Bethlehem district the east side, which is a mix of industrial and domestic wastewater. This practice is also examined in Wadi Al Fara’a and part of the Jordan Valley. Components in wastewater highly impact crops include sodium, chloride, and boron (Dayman, 2000). In addition, it has been reported by PECDAR (1994) that heavy metals including Chromium have been traced in the samples taken from Hebron and Bethlehem wastewater, but no values have been given Both microbial pathogens and over the longer term, nitrates from wastewater can contaminate shallow aquifers such as the case of the GAZA Strip. In addition to the problems that are related to technical issues, there are other problems that are related to the social, religion, cultural, economic and public awareness. These problems are related with each other and affect on the public acceptance of the reuse of the treated wastewater. These issues are discussed thoroughly in the succeeding chapters, particularly in the methodology and hypothesis sections. 1-4 Importance In the West Bank, wastewater generation and flow rates increased due to accelerating population growth and service area expansion. This increase resulted in increasing the quantity of wastewater discharged outside urban areas with little or no treatment. This situation leads to environmental pollution and health hazards, particularly in the areas where raw wastewater is used for irrigation. As a result of the second Intifada in Palestine which has started in September, 2000: • Israeli brutal actions being practiced against the Palestinian people, demolishing human and physical infrastructure including water and wastewater works, • Oslo Declaration is no more valid, • Israeli colonies on Palestinian land are being rapidly spread using great amounts of the Palestinian water. As a result, current access to freshwater only barely meets the domestic, industrial and agricultural demand in West Bank and water and wastewater services and infrastructure are in very bad shape. The importance of this study lay in that (1) wastewater is an important supplementary water sources, and (2) the understanding, awareness, and attitude of the society in the West Bank about the various aspects of wastewater treatment and reuse in Palestine was not conducted, documented and/or disseminated before this study. This importance is specific due to the current political status and consequences on the subject matter. The study will examine the most important factors that affect the acceptance of the reuse of treated wastewater by application of four types of questionnaires. It connects, for the main public groups, the different factors of influence, such as social, religious and cultural, economic, political, institutional, health, technical and public awareness, and gives relations between these factors and the acceptance or non acceptance of the reuse. This study can also be considered as an inception for further studies that examine one or more factors affecting the reuse. It will also provides detailed recommendations regarding the various elements and aspects of wastewater treatment and reuse in Palestine. 1-5 Objectives The purpose of this research is not to argue for or against the option of reusing treated wastewater–because the need to do so is already clearly apparent-, but rather to figure out and explore the opinions of the society in Palestine, especially in the West Bank through different levels and layers, regarding the wastewater treatment and reuse, in addition to examine the potential purposes for the reuse. The main objective of the study is to explore the attitudes, preferences and perceptions upon which decision about acquiring and reusing the treated wastewater. It aims to determine the effects of social, economic, religious, political factors on this decision. The followings are the other objectives of the study: 1) To determine whether the community in general is informed or not about the water reuse. 2) To determine whether the community believe that religion and social customs are against the reuse 3) To specify the most acceptable sector for reuse in the opinion of the community 4) To determine the most acceptable agency or authority for the community in order to be in charge of the management of the wastewater and treatment sector 5) To find out whether the community is willing to pay for the cost of reuse 6) To present several aspects of the influence of social, religious, political, economical and other related factors on public acceptance of water reuse. 1-6 Hypothesis The development of the wastewater and reuse schemes needs to include an understanding of social and cultural aspects of wastewater reuse. In order to do so, many factors proposed to affect the understanding of the community of the subject should be appraised and studied. In this research, it is proposed that the community acceptance to the reuse issues will be affected by many factors. Some of these factors positively affect the opinion of the community and others are proposed to have negative effects. In addition to the acceptance, the attitude of the community toward the issue will also be affected. The religion and the social aspects are very important to be addressed in any development in the wastewater reuse. There is a persistent notion within the West Bank that wastewater reuse is against the religion and social traditions and customs. It is proposed that people are prejudiced against the wastewater reuse from the religion and social point of view. Taking into consideration the water scarcity in the West Bank, and the unrealized water rights by the Israelis, the economical and current political situation in the Palestinian Territories has a crucial effect on the acceptance of the community to the reuse. Health considerations should also be taken into consideration before implementing reuse. Many Amoebiasis and other symptoms related with raw wastewater reuse have been witnessed in the recorded in the West Bank; this will also affect acceptance to the reuse, especially amongst those who were infected. Awareness about the wastewater treatment and reuse, will also affect the acceptance of the community. The age, level of education and the type of work may also affect the opinion regarding reuse. The hypothesis and its findings are detailed in Table 5-1-3 and 5-2-2 in sections 5-1-9 and 5-2-9 respectively. Chapter 2 Methodology 2-1 Research Program To fulfill the objectives of the study, the following research activities were conducted: 1) Detailed field survey covering the main public groups of interest to wastewater management including treatment and reuse, 2) Four questionnaires were designed for the various target groups, the hypothesis was tested through two main groups of data: general and specific, and the sample size and distribution for the study area with its districts was estimated according to accredited methods, 3) The designed questionnaires were distributed, filled, collected, sorted, and documented. Descriptive statistics were performed on the data collected using SPSS. 2-2 Field Survey The field survey has been conducted by applying questionnaires to different types and layers of people in the west Bank. The questionnaires mainly aim to assess the attitudes of the people toward water supply and wastewater treatment reuse. 2-2-1 Questionnaires Design The questionnaires have focused on some issues which are very common all over Palestine. The questions included took into consideration the characteristics of the inhabitants from different aspects, as well as the level of education and the position of the individual by whom the questionnaire was answered. The questionnaires have focused on the following objectives: 1) Whether the community in general is informed or not about the wastewater reuse. 2) Do people seem to be prejudiced against the benefits of the wastewater reuse? 3) To determine the most important factors that make the Palestinians prejudiced against the wastewater treatment and reuse. 4) Do people favor water reuse to be applied in agriculture? And what kind of irrigation (direct or indirect contact) is acceptable to the Palestinians? 5) To determine the most acceptable institutions in order to be responsible for the management of water and wastewater sector. 6) To address the most important aspects of management in which the society prefer to participate. 7) To specify the most acceptable sectors for reuse of treated wastewater effluent. 8) To present the several aspects of influence of social factors on public acceptance of water reuse. 9) To find the relationship between the society characteristics and the acceptance or rejection to the reuse of the wastewater. 10) To discuss the effect of the political situation, particularly the unrealized Palestinian rights in using the natural resources, and the Israeli manipulation on the water resources and the effect of this on the acceptance of the reuse of the treated wastewater. 2-2-1-1 Target Group To identify the target groups, the Palestinian society was explored. The characteristics of these groups were studied, they were aggregated in to four groups. It was found that some individuals have a far greater level of interest in deciding up on the reuse of treated wastewater. These are persons who want to have an actual voice in the process. These individuals are often associated with “interest groups” such as a community or Ministry of Agriculture, Palestinian Agricultural Relief CommitteeG, Palestinian Water Authority (PWA), local government units, NGOs and in line ministries. Others are associated with groups that have an even higher level of interest because they are more directly impacted by activities and policy decisions. These “stakeholder” groups include the farmers, Agricultural committees, Agriculture industry. These would have direct impacts by the wastewater treatment and reuse Some people have a less level of interest in wastewater reuse issues. This would include, but not be limited to the public people such as households. These individuals are not directly impacted by the wastewater treatment and reuse. Others are considered as experts in the subject, they deal with the environment and several processes associated with the environment. To identify the target groups, it is required to recognize and to proactively engage those types of people. It is also crucial that these groups are given the opportunity to engage in ways that take into consideration their interests and other ethnic and cultural differences (if any), and preferences. To determine a specific target public, the following factors were taken into consideration: • Self identification (those who have made their interest known) • Proximity (those who live near or frequent a proposed feature, such as a proposed treatment plant or irrigation project) • Mandate (agencies that have a similar authority or groups that have an interest in the reuse) • Use (people who may use the treated effluent) • Economics (those who might be affected by the reuse) During the study, it was found that the interest groups and individuals can be classified into the following interest groups (layers) • Farmers: those individual who work in agriculture, and there income depend on agriculture. These farmers have good experience in agriculture, and growing different types of crops. • Public: the individuals who work in any career but not in agricultural sector and do not have technical experience in the wastewater and the reuse. This layer includes different ages, sex and level of education. • The experts: Those (particularly engineers) who work in the water and wastewater sector. The experts were chosen among the engineers who have technical experience in the wastewater and treatment subject. • The Institutions: This layer includes the individuals who are considered as key persons and decision makers amongst the Palestinians. This layer includes the individual who work in some known related agencies such as the World Bank, Welfare Association (WAC), PECDAR, Palestinian Water Authority (PWA), UNDP, KARE, Save the Children, Palestinian Hydrology Group, the Universities, Municipality Mayors, and in line ministries like Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), Ministry of Local Government (MOLG), and Ministry of Planning (MOP). 2-2-1-2 Testing the Hypothesis Before starting the analyses of the questionnaires, the proposed factors that affect the reuse of wastewater in Palestine were related to the questions in line with the subject. These factors are summarized as follow: • Social Factor: The West Bank society is considered a highly adhered to the social traditions and customs. These traditions and customs control many aspects of life in the West Bank. In the questionnaires, some questions take into consideration some social aspects that are proposed to affect the acceptance or non acceptance of the reuse of treated wastewater. The proposed hypothesis is that the application of wastewater reuse has the potential to be confronted by the society of the West Bank from the social and moral point of view. In this context, the social factor can be defined as the concerns or doubts expressed by the public about their perceptions on wastewater reuse. • Religious and cultural factor: Given that Islam, like other religions, places on cleanliness. There is a persistent notion within the West Bank society that wastewater reuse is against Islam. However, the council of Leading Islamic Scholars of Saudi Arabia issued a special fatwa “to regulate the rules of treated effluents for different purposes. Wastewater reuse was made permissible for all purposes, including (wadu), provided that the wastewater was treated to the required level of purity for its intended use and did not result in any adverse public health effect (Farouki Naser, 1999). The religion was taken into consideration as one of the important factors that is proposed to affect the acceptance of the wastewater reuse. The society understanding of the religion judgment on the issue is the most important. Although the religion allows the reuse of the wastewater under conditions, the society might not be aware of this rule. Accordingly, people seem to be prejudiced against wastewater reuse. • Economic Factor: The financial situation of the individual, and the economic situation of the society have an obvious effect on the acceptance of the reuse of treated wastewater. In the hypothesis, it is assumed that the lower the income of the individual, the higher the tendency for the acceptance of the reuse. This proposition is rationale, since most of the people believe that the process of the reuse will augment natural water resources, which will be preserved for the essential purposes, and hence the water prices will be decreased accordingly. • Political Factor: Despite that the overall recharge area of the mountainous aquifers lie to 78% in the West Bank (Christine S. et al. 1996), the Israelis exploit some 80% of the aquifers and some 75% of the Jordan River. Israel controls the water natural resources by occupation and military forces. During the current situation, the water and wastewater sectors were imposed to enormous damages occurred during the incursions of the West Bank. In addition to that, Israel hindered and stopped most of the development schemes related to these sectors, such as digging of new or even rehabilitation of existing old wells and installation of water and irrigation networks. Enormous damages occurred to the irrigation systems particularly in Qalqilia, Tulkarem and Jenin districts due to the construction of the Apartheid Separation Wall on the most fertile lands of these districts. These have affected the way of thinking of farmers and other individuals. The proposition is that although some of the individuals may refuse the principle of wastewater treatment and reuse of the effluent, in order to augment the shortage of water. But, at the same time the principle may be accepted by others, since they know that this future resource of water is essential to supplement other natural resources, particularly to augment non-human water purposes. The political situation and the behavior of Israel toward the Palestinian water rights, might make the priority of the Palestinians to practice their rights in utilizing and developing natural water resources, not to thing about reusing their wastewater. • Health Factor: The main problem with the reuse of wastewater is the threat to public health, the soil and water if reuse is not done carefully. In developing countries, the main impact on health from reuse is from diseases caused by helminth, such as roundworm, hookworm and guinea worm microbial pathogens pose the second largest threat (Farouki Naser, 1999). The worst case situation occurs when untreated wastewater is used to irrigate eaten raw vegetables or salad crops. Unfortunately, although Ministry of Health prohibited the irrigation with raw wastewater, there are many on going instances of raw wastewater reuse which result in occasional gastrointestinal illness, and have the potential for causing widespread illness. These practices have been examined in many areas of the West Bank like Wadi Kedron, near Bethlehem. In addition to helminth and pathogens, the wastewater dischargers to Wadi Kedron contain other components that are most toxic such as chloride and boron (Farouki Naser, 1999). Given the high costs of the wastewater treatment to zero risk level, prior to reuse for crop irrigation, treatment to this level may not be justified on economic, social or political grounds. Nevertheless, valuation of public health risk should be an important decision variable in wastewater irrigation policy analyses. Many cases of Amoebiasis and Ascariasis were witnessed within some districts in the West Bank. The proposition is to connect the areas which witnessed these cases with irrigation practices of raw wastewater in those districts. On the other hand, it is proposed that the family health may affect the decision on the reuse, those who suffered from Amoebiasis and Ascariasis my not accept the reuse practices even for highly level of treatment. • Technical and water supply Factors: The technical and water supply factors consist of the situation of natural water supplies, the capability to treat wastewater and the potential to reuse the effluent for irrigation. These factors takes into consideration the groundwater, type of irrigation, and the most acceptable sector the treated wastewater should be applied to. The groundwater is taken into account since the reuse of treated wastewater will benefit the ground water either by augmenting the natural resources, or by decreasing the contamination levels. The situation of the water and wastewater networks and other facilities is considered another technical factor, in addition to the quantities of potable waters. • Public Awareness factor: The public awareness has a major effect on the acceptance and rejection of the reuse of the treated wastewater. Given that the traditions and customs are prejudiced against the reuse, then if the public are not informed properly about treatment and reuse, they may reject the process. This factor is highly related to the social and religious factors. The public should be informed about wastewater treatment and reuse by the available mass media and newspapers. The public should be informed about the advantages, disadvantages and potential risks of the reuse. The mass media must make discussions and seminars with religious references, illustrating the religious out look about the reuse. In addition, decisions issued by other Islamic countries must be published and discussed with interest group. On the other hand, the academic institutes and schools must include courses about the environment, this helps enhance awareness among young people. • Institutional Factor: Since water is an essential good for the society, the central functions of water resources management and planning are in the hands of public institutions. Recently, the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) has developed according to the requirements of the by-law No. 2. The PNA has entered into agreement with Norwegian government regarding the development of the water sector, which was signed in February, 1996. This agreement provides extensive financial and professional assistance to the PWA until 1999. Although the mandate of the PWA is to have full supervision over all Palestinian water institutions, some municipalities have there own separate system. In discussing the Institutional topic, the opinion of the public is taken into consideration about the best institution (authority) that must take the responsibility of the management and administration of the water and wastewater sector. Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 summarize the above factors with related questions for each type of questionnaire. Table 2.1: Factors taken into consideration by (Type I) Public questionnaire Factor Related questions Parameter Social 1,2,5,6,7,14,15,16,18,28,30,31,33,34 ,46,64, S Religious and cultural 3,35,36,37 C Economic 4,8,10,13,41A,42,61 E Political 49,60 P Health 17,21,22,23,32 H Technical and water supply 9,11,12,26,27,50,51,52,53,54,55,59,62,63 T Public Awareness and participation 43,44,45,67,68,46,47 A Institutional 56,58,69,70,71 G Socio-economic 19,20,24,25,28,39A,39B,41B,41C,47 SE Table 2.2: Factors taken into consideration by (Type II) Farmer questionnaire Factor Related questions Parameter Social 1,2,5,6,7,14,15,16,18,28,30,31,33,34 ,46,64, S Religious and cultural 3,35,36,37 C Economic 4,8,10,13,41A,42,61 E Political 49,60 P Health 17,21,22,23,32 H Technical and water supply and agriculture 9,11,12,26,27,50,51,52,53,54,55,59,62,63, 72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79 T Public Awareness and participation 43,44,45,67,68,46,47 A Institutional 56,58,69,70,71 G Socio-economic 19,20,24,25,28,39A,39B,41B,41C,47 SE Table 2.3: Factors taken into consideration by (Type III) Institutions questionnaire Factor Related questions Parameter Social 1,2,5,6,7,14,15,16,18,28,35 ,40B,40C S Religious and cultural 3,33,34,36,37 C Economic 4,8,10,13,38,39A,39B,40A,51 E Political 44,45,46,71,72 P Health 17,21,22,23,29,30,31,32,73 H Technical and water supply 9,11,12,26,27,47,48,,49,50,51,52,53,54, 59,60,61,62,63,64,66,68,70 T Public Awareness and participation 55,56,57,58,75,76 A Institutional 65,67,69,74,77,78,79 G Socio-economic 19,20,24,25,28,39A,39B,40B,40C SE Table 2.4: Factors taken into consideration by (Type IV) Experts questionnaire Factor Related questions Parameter Social 1,2,5,6,7,14,15,16,18,28,35 ,40B,40C S Religious and cultural 3,33,34,36,37 C Economic 4,8,10,13,38,39A,39B,40A,51 E Political 44,45,46,71,72 P Health 17,21,22,23,29,30,31,32,73 H Technical and water supply 9,11,12,26,27,47,48,,49,50,51,52,53,54, 59,60,61,62,63,64,66,68,70 T Public Awareness and participation 55,56,57,58,75,76 A Institutional 65,67,69,74,77,78,79 G Socio-economic 19,20,24,25,28,39A,39B,40B,40C SE 2-2-1-3 Sample Size and Distribution The questionnaires based survey was applied to 554 individuals in seven districts of the West Bank. The following are the districts ordered according to its geographical location from the south to the north of the West Bank (See map on the following page) • Hebron & Bethlehem (Hebron city, Dura, Halhoul, Bet Ummer, Bet Ta'amer, Al Fawwar Camp) • Jerusalem (Al Ram, Jerusalem, Anata, Qlandia) • Ramallah (Ramallah, Singel, Turmos Aya, Ain Sinya, Bet Rima, Der Aghassaneh, Der Qiddees) • Salfeet (Salfeet, Hares, Kuful Hares) • Nablus (Nablus, Hiwwara, Awarta, Bureen, Madama, Rujeeb, Rujeeb Employees Housing, Blata Camp) • Jenin & Tubas (Jenin, Jenin Camp, Tubas, Tammoun, Anza, Al Seelet Al Harithiyyeh, Al Yamoun) • Qalqilia & Tulkarem ( Qalqilia, Tulkarem, Asleh, Der El Ghsoun, Azzoun, Bala'a, Anabta, Bet Leed) The sampling procedure, or experimental design, affects the quantity of information per measurement. This procedure and the sample size n control the total amount of relevant information in a sample. In our research, we were concerned with the simplest sampling situation, random sampling from a relatively large population, and focused our attention on the selection of the sample size n (Walpole, R. Mayers, R, 1985). The Central Limit theorem states that "If random sample of n observations are drawn from a population with finite mean µ and standard deviation σ/√n. The approximation will become more and more accurate as n becomes larger and larger". The Central Limit Theorem can be restarted to apply the sum of the sample measurements Σyi, which also tends to have a normal sampling distribution with mean equal to nµ and standard deviation σ/√n, as n becomes larger. If the population distribution is non normal, the sampling distribution of Υ will be for larger samples, approximately normally distributed (by the central Limit Theorem). This means that the sampling distributions of Y will be approximately normal for sample sizes as small as n = 25 for most populations of measurements. However, our samples number is greater than 25, so the Central Limit Theorem is valid, the distribution of these samples is assumed to be normal (Walpole, R. Mayers, R, 1985). In order to make our sampling procedure representative, the following statistical procedure was followed: 1) The bound on the error of estimation (β) was chosen, its value was assumed ±.06 2) The confidence coefficient (1-α) was chosen, the value of α was assumed .05 3) The confidence level (1-α) was calculated to be .95 4) From the normal distribution tables, zα/2 = 1.964 5) Define σ р = √ (P*q/n), (4-1) 6) The formulae will be β = 1.964*√ (P*q/n) (4-2) Where, q is the probability to choose one answer of the multiple choice questions. Since we have five choices, then q will be equal 0.2. P = 1- q, and is equal 0.8 in our case. √ is the square root Solving for n, the required number of samples is 170. However, since four types of questionnaires are used in the research, about 554 questionnaires of different types have been collected and analyzed. The following calculations are presented here to give the bound error for each type of questionnaire at a confidence error of 95%: 1) For the public type questionnaires, 187 samples were collected and analyzed: From formula (4-2), β = 1.964*√ (P*q/n) β = 1.964*√ (0.2*0.8/187) = 0.057. This means that an error of ±0.057 may occur at a confidence level of 95% in the answers of the multiple choice questions of the public questionnaires. The same procedure was used for the other types of questionnaires and the following results ware found 2) Farmers type questionnaires, 168 samples were collected and analyzed: From formula (4-2), β = 1.964*√ (0.2*0.8/168) = 0.061. This means that an error of ±0.061 may occur at a confidence level of 95% in the answers of the multiple choice questions of the farmers questionnaires. 3) Institutes type questionnaires, 127 samples were collected and analyzed: From formula (4-2), β = 1.964*√ (0.2*0.8/127) = 0.07. This means that an error of ±0.07 may occur at a confidence level of 95% in the answers of the multiple choice questions of the institutes questionnaires. 4) Experts type questionnaires, 72 samples were collected and analyzed: From formula (4-2), β = 1.964*√ (0.2*0.8/72) = 0.092. This means that an error of ±0.092 may occur at a confidence level of 95% in the answers of the multiple choice questions of the experts questionnaires. The sampling method used, allows the data to be considered representative of the different targeted groups in the West Bank. Confidence level assumed is 95% to within ±0.057, ±0.061, ±0.07, ±0.092 percentage points of error for the public, farmers, experts and institutes questionnaires respectively. 2-2-1-4 Questionnaire Procedure To meet the above objectives, questionnaires were applied to the West Bank society. In order to cover the four types of target groups effectively, the questionnaire were divided into four types. Each type of the questionnaires has targeted one of the four interest groups as follow • Type I; Public questionnaire (layer 1): It was applied to the public people and households. This includes those who live inside cities, villages, refugee camps and other locations. • Type II; Farmers questionnaire (layer 2): It was applied to the agriculture related individuals and communities, such as farmers, agriculture relief and other communities related to agriculture. • Type III; Experts questionnaire (layer 3): It was applied to the expert persons who are specialized in water, water resources, water management, wastewater treatment and reuse, and other environmental related subjects. • Type IV; institutions questionnaire (layer 4): was applied to the officials, including elected and designated individuals, interested NGOs and other entities concerned in the subject. The four type questionnaires discuss different topics in a simple procedure. These topics contain simple related questions concerning subjects in line with wastewater treatment and reuse. The questionnaires were divided into different topics of interest. Each topic consists of a group of simple related questions. The following are the most common subjects that have been handled by the four types of questionnaires • Section A, General Information: This section contains information about the district, type of location (city, village, camp or housing complex), gender, age, marital state, religion, information about the work, education level, residency and accommodation, information about water consumption, method of water supply, method of wastewater collection (if any), methods of solid waste collection, income, information about the family and family size. • Section B&D, luxury aspects: it contains questions about the car and home gardens. Whether the individual use hose to wash his car. Whether water available is sufficient for home yards irrigation and car washing. • Section C, family health status: this section contains questions about the Diarrhoea cases within the family, Amoebiasis and Ascariasis cases. These symptoms are related to environmental health aspects. • Section E, public health aspects: it contains questions about water quality, water shortage and its effect on health, and the effect of water and wastewater services on the migration to better serviced places. • Section F, religion and social aspects: the section contains questions related to Islam as a main religion in the West Bank. It contains questions which are used as a means to measure the adherence of the individual to the religion and social customs and traditions. From this section, it can be determined if the society is prejudiced against the wastewater treatment and reuse from the religious point of view. Also it can be determined whether people believe that the reuse of treated wastewater is acceptable by the religion and social traditions or not. • Section G, Economic and financial Aspects: The section contains questions used as a means to determine whether the water price is considered a burden. The section also helps find out whether the society is willing to participate financially in the development of water and wastewater sectors. The effects of the economic and financial situation of the individual toward the willingness to pay the cost of treated water. • Section H (Public &Farmers), Section K (Experts &Institutions), Public awareness: discuss the growing awareness of water resource scarcity in Palestine, the competition of water resources and the negative impact of contaminated water on human health and the environment demand and the development of adequate strategies in water management. The sections also discuss the awareness of the society of wastewater treatment and reuse, and whether the information provided by the mass media is sufficient. • Section I (Public &Farmers), section L (Experts &Institutions), Public and social participation: the willingness activation of the individuals and local communities to participate in the development of a new resource management system. The willingness to privatize the water and wastewater sector. • Section J (Public &Farmers), section M (Public &Farmers), water and wastewater technical aspects: the section talks about the types of reuse, particularly in agricultural sector. What type of irrigation is preferred. Whether the experts in the West Bank have any criticism against some of the international standards. • Section K (Public &Farmers), section N (Expert &Institutions), water situation: the section discusses the situation of water resource, the future of water in Palestine, the effect of the reuse on ground water situation, and whether the natural water resources are available for different purposes. • Section T (Experts &Institutions), political Aspects: This section discus the political situation in the West Bank and its effect on the acceptance of people, particularly the experts and institutional levels. These aspects are discussed explicitly in the experts and institutional questionnaires level, and implicitly in the farmers and public questionnaires level. • Section L (Public &Farmers), section M (Expert &Institutions), Wrong practices: This section debates the use of raw wastewater in the irrigation in some area of the West Bank. • Section M (Public &Farmers), section N (Experts &Institutes): The opinion of the society must be explored before the implementation of any wastewater treatment and reuse scheme. The section discusses the aspects that should be taken into consideration when the society is explored about this issue. • Section N (Public & Farmers), section Q (Experts &Institutes): • Section O (Farmers), Agriculture: This section discusses types of crops and irrigation resources, and what are the main factors that adversely affect the agricultural sector. 2-2-2 Data and Data Analysis Questionnaires have been applied to about 554 persons; 168 were applied to the farmers, 187 applied to the public (households and citizens), and 72 to experts in the subject. 127 questionnaires were applied to the different institutions, NGOs, donors, related entities and in line ministries. The questionnaires were collected and analyzed using SPSS 11.5 software. Descriptive analysis have been conducted to the questions. The answers of the question were divided into three categories; first category is those who agree upon the question, they are the individuals who answer with either Strongly Agree or Agree (merely) or Fairly agree (Fair); second category is those who answer with Reject; the third is for those who have No Opinion. Frequency tables have been produced for each question showing the frequency and percentages of each answer for each question. These tables are included in the Annexes for each type of questionnaires. For the conclusions of hypothesis in section 5-1-9 and 5-2-9, the necessary tables and figures are included in Chapter 5. Histograms and bar charts have been constructed for some of the important results. These graphs are included in the Annexes for each type of questionnaires. The histograms and bar charts for hypothesis conclusions are included in Chapter5. Cross tables were constructed in order to relate two or more factors. To determine the decision of a specific group toward a specific aspect, cross tables (crosstab) were constructed, and cluster histograms and bar charts were also constructed. These (crosstabs) are included in the Appendixes. For the hypothesis testing, they are included in Chapter5. 2-2-3 Difficulties Faced During Field Survey Implementation The field survey was conducted in September beginning of October, 2003. During this survey, the researcher conducted many interviews with different types of people. Those interviews enabled the researcher to explore some opinions directly. At the same time, many difficulties and obstacles were faced. These difficulties and obstacles hindered and even some times stopped the survey. The most tough difficulties are summarized as follow 1) The Israeli closures and sanctions strictly imposed on different areas of the West Bank. These measures stopped the survey in many occasions, this delayed the distribution of questionnaire in different districts like Hebron, Qalqilia, Jenin and Salfeet areas. Some times the researcher could not reach the destination. Due to these measures, transportation from an area to another was very difficult and sometimes it was dangerous. 2) Some of the individuals were not interested in filling the questionnaire. The researcher had to skip those persons and to find others. This was faced particularly with the Public Type Questionnaires. 3) Some of the individuals did not find half an hour to fill the Questionnaire. This problem was encountered with the Institutes Type Questionnaires. 4) About 731 questionnaires were distributed, the researcher collected only 589 questionnaires, and skipped 35 questionnaires because it were not filled properly. The final number of representative questionnaires was as mentioned 554 questionnaires. 5) The researcher was many times forced to explain the meaning of treatment and reuse. A significant number of the public and farmers do not know the process. 6) The most tedious job was to collect the questionnaires, then to empty the answers in excel files. This job took a long time, more than a month. 7) How to represent the output results? This was the dilemma. A very large out put was produced; too many tables and graphs. Too many relations can be thought of. How to relate the variables and factors? ...etc. Finally those obstacles were confronted, and the research is completed. Chapter 3 Background 3-1 General Background Wastewater reuse is not a recent invention. There are indicators that wastewater was used back for irrigation in ancient Greece and to the Minan civilization (ca. 3000 – 1000 BC) (Angelakis etal., 1999; Asano and Levin, 1996). Seventy percent of world water use, including all the water diverted from rivers and pumped from underground, is used for irrigation, 20 percent is used by industry, and 10 percent goes to residences (Kertschmer, Ribbe, Gaeste, 1996). During 1950-60, interest in applying wastewater on land in the western hemisphere as wastewater treatment technology advanced and quality of treated effluents steadfastly improved. Land application became a cost- effective alternative of discharging effluent into surface water bodies (Asano, T. 1998). Recently, the use of wastewater in what was called “sewage farming” was started in Australia, France, Germany, India, the United Kingdom and the USA in the later 19th century (WHO, 1989). More recently wastewater reclamation and reuse projects and schemes have been considered and implemented not only by countries with chronic water shortage, but also urban areas in temperate climates as a matter of necessity to meet growing water needs (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991) In Palestine, it has been concluded by several studies that handle the wastewater disposal and treatment strategies and the water supply management that it is an important element to establish and construct wastewater treatment plants and to reuse its treated wastewater for irrigation. This will result in shifting fresh water resources to domestic use and in helping solve the problems of waste contamination and disposal (Haddad, M. 1993). 3-2 Possibilities of reuse (Kretshmer, Ribbe and Gaese, 1996) concluded that are two major types of reuse have been developed and practiced throughout the world. The first use is the potable use, which include the direct use of reclaimed water to augment drinking water supply following high levels of treatment, and the indirect use after passing the natural environment. The second type of reuses is the non-potable uses. This includes agriculture, irrigation of parks and forestry, aquaculture, aquifer recharge and industry. Concerning the reuse in the agriculture, (Shelef, 1991) classified the irrigation of agricultural crops by the treated wastewater into four categories according to the requirement of purity. Each category was given an alphabet such that the first ordered alphabet denotes to least treatment requirements, and the second higher requirements, and so forth. For each type of agriculture, (Shelef, 1991) specified criteria to be used as characteristics of the treated effluent intended to be used in the irrigation of the crop which is included in the classification Table 3.1 illustrates Shelef criteria for the treated effluent depending on type of irrigation Table 3.1: Quality Criteria of Treated Wastewater Effluent to be reused for Agricultural Irrigation Group of crops A B C D Principal Crops Cotton, sugar, beet, cereals, dry fodder seeds, forest irrigation Green fodder, olives, peanuts, citrus, bananas, almonds, nuts Deciduous fruits, conserved vegetables, cooked and peeled vegetables, green belts, football fields and golf courses Unrestricted crops, including vegetables eaten uncooked (raw), parks and lawns Quoted from (Shelef, 1991) (Idelovitch, RingskogK, 1997 and Shelef, 1996) explained the distinction between restricted and unrestricted irrigation depending on the kind of crop 1) Restricted irrigation which uses the low quality effluents in limited areas and specific crops. This type of irrigation is simple and low cost, and applied to small amounts of wastewater to crops that are well defined and unlikely to change. The farmers must be trained to handle the low-quality effluent (Non-contact uses). 2) Unrestricted irrigation which requires the use of high quality effluents, instead of freshwater. It is used to irrigate any crop on any type of soil, without limitations. Contact uses or even accidental drinking do not pose health risks. It can be applied to vegetables eaten raw without any restriction. Regarding industrial reuse, treated wastewater can be used in different industries in the West Bank. Some of these industries are quarrying, stone cutting, ready mix concrete, leather tanning, soap factories and others. 3-3 Public Acceptance The psychological factor is essential for initiating, and implementing of wastewater treatment and reuse scheme. Therefore the development of wastewater and reuse schemes needs to include an understanding of the social and cultural aspects of wastewater reuse. In absence of social support, a reuse project may fail. Even for non-potable reuse purposes, the public attitude plays an important role, including the perception of water quality, willingness to pay or to accept any wastewater reuse project (Lazarova, V. 2000). By working on the public as well as on the institutional acceptance, one has also to keep in mind that wastewater reuse is a supplemental water supply in water scarce regions such as West Bank, and can be alternative to the disposal of treated effluents in the nearby wadis. Related to public acceptance and health issues a risk assessment should be part of the planning process. For example a careful assessment of the extent of potential health risks involved in wastewater reuse for irrigation is necessary. The extent of risks then might be weighted against urgency and derived benefits of the water reuse in order to make a sound decision on the project (Shahalam, et al., 1989). As an example of widespread public relation work associated with water reuse or recycling is shown. The “Queensland water recycling strategy” serves as an example (Queensland Government, 2001). This strategy was initiated from the department of Natural Resources (DNR) in Australia and is managed from the EPA to increase the beneficial use of a largely untapped resource. The reports, which range from educational needs, agricultural water recycling, urban water recycling, health effects and legislative considerations were all published (the last in 2001) with the goal to reach all people involved in water management issues, to promote the possibilities of water recycling in all sectors and give governmental support by planning and implementation. 3-4 Socio-Economic Considerations in the study area During the current crisis, and due to the Israeli measures of closing the territories, incursions and dividing the West Bank into cantons, the unemployment rate has reached a tremendous level. The unemployment percentage in the west Bank was recorded to be 66% in the year 2000 (World Bank Report). This issue wrecked the Palestinian economy with the result of a lower income and a lower ability of the Palestinian people to pay their water bills. This started in the first Intifada and continued at a larger scale during the current crisis. During the incursions to the West Bank cities and villages which started in April 2002, and in addition to the high unemployment rates due to the sanctions imposed on the territories, and to the high mortality due to Israeli abnormal violence against the Palestinians, very large damages to the infrastructure resulted from these incursions, these damages were assessed and estimated about $526,000,000. Of which about $62,345,000 is the estimated damage in the water sector, and about $76,464,000 in the sewage and sanitation sector (PECDAR & IMG, 2003). The other major issue which will affect the socio-economic aspects of the Palestinians is the building of the Apartheid Separation Wall by the Israeli government. (PECDAR, 2003) reported that in addition to the confiscation of thousands of hectares of the most fertile lands in the west Bank and expropriation of water wells, about 12,000 Palestinians living in 15 different villages will be jailed behind the wall and will lose there livelihoods. Almost 200,000 Palestinians will be adversely affected by this wall, which will increase the unemployment to even higher rates than those recorded in the year 2002. About 30,000 Palestinians have already lost there livelihood because their lands and farms are behind the Wall. The agricultural sector will be the most adversely affected sector by this wall, according to PECDAR report about 40% of the agricultural fertile lands are either destroyed or expropriated or kept behind the wall. The value of damages caused by the construction of the first stage of the Separation Wall is estimated at about $37,000,000 (PECDAR, 2003). This figure does not include the value of confiscated lands, wells and does not include the damages in the villages behind the wall. These Issues force the Palestinians to confront the resulting water shortage and to think about other water resources to be used as supplements to the conventional resources, although it is the legal Palestinian rights to obtain there demands from there natural water resources. 3-5 Political Considerations Palestinian Territories had been ruled under several political administrations in the past 500 years starting from Turkish and ending with the Israeli occupation. The water regulations in Palestine were always interpreted for the benefit of the occupiers. During the Turkish State, the Turkish laws prevailed which was relayed on the Islamic Water law, which states that water must be available to all members of the Islamic community and is prohibited to be sold. In the 1930’s, the British mandate was introduced which was changed several times. Between 1952 and 1967, the Jordanian laws were reflected in the West Bank, although the British prevailed in Gaza. The changing laws can be summarized as follow: • The owner ship of the resources was related to the ownership of land • the setting of regulations for distribution were delegated to regional and local authorities • Standards regarding quantity and quality were not specified • there were no legal guidelines or court responsible for water conflicts and problems disputes • sewage disposal and pollution management were delegated to local authorities, but no references about the reuse of water. (Issa, Bruijne, 1995) After the Israeli occupation of the West Bank in 1967, The water resource were ruled by military authority. All surface water and ground water resources became property of the state of Israel. The 1959 Israeli water law has realized several military orders in the West Bank and Gaza, this controlled and restricted Palestinian use of water resources. In the West Bank the following three orders mainly defined water affairs • Military order No. 92 of August 1967, Israel transferred the full control over water resources and their management to an appointed Israeli Water Officer, who became the only responsible for the granting of permits and operating licenses, the setting of fees, taxes and quotas, the monitoring of water use, the decision the decision on appeals and the controlling of all water entities and committees. The drilling of new wells was impossible without a permission of the water officer, who did not give a single permission for the drilling of wells for industrial or agricultural purposes. The order also fixed the water contingent for Palestinian use and expropriated all wells of absent owners and of expropriated Arabic land (Baskin, 1993) • Military Order No. 158 of November 1967 adjusted the Jordanian Water Monitoring Law, which originally concerned only irrigation water rights, and prohibited the construction of any new water installation without a license from the Water Officer. But he could refrain from approving a permit without giving reasons and he could cancel or change the permit or impose conditions on it, without possibility to appeal against his decision. Thus this order forbade the unlicensed construction of new water infrastructures. • Military Order No. 291 of December 1968, declared all prior settlements of disputes regarding water invalid. It was based on Jordanian law No. 40 of 1952 and transferred all responsibilities of the former Jordanian Water Department to the Water Officer. Hereby it increased the jurisdiction of the Water Officer once again (Issa, Buijne, 1995). In 1982, the Israeli water authority Mekorot took control. As a result of this situation, the Palestinian wells were destroyed and supplies were dried up by widespread digging and pumping from deeper wells for the Israeli use (Sturn, Ribbe and Schwabe, Water Resource Management in the West Bank,1996). Israel also delays approval of Palestinian water projects; as of July 2001, 17 requests submitted since the year 1997 by the Palestinian Water Authority, but still considered pending (Passia, 2003). In 1986, Israel reduced the quotas for the amount of water to be pumped from wells in the West Bank by 10%, which resulted not only not only in a widespread scarcity, but also in a drop in the water table and increased salinity. Additional loss of available water due to leaky pipes is estimated at 30% (Passia, 2003). In 1999, experts estimated the compensation for damages to Palestinian water resources caused by Israeli measures, and for Palestinian water used by Israel over the years at a minimum of 45$ billions (Jad Isaac, 1999). In September 1991, the Middle East Pease Process began, in Article 40 of Oslo II, Israel for the first recognized the Palestinian rights concerning the water, which is summarized by supplying the Palestinians additional 28,600,000 m3/annum as immediate needs, and 70 to 80 millions m3 per annum as future needs (OSLO II Declaration). But it did not explain from where these amounts should come, and taking into consideration that the Jordan River is excluded at that stage, and taking into consideration that the aquifer system is being completely utilized (Sturn, C. Ribbe, L. Schwabe, C. 1996). As of 1990, until now, Israel is using for agriculture sector ten times as much as the total water use in the West Bank (Sturn, C. Ribbe, L. Schwabe, C. 1996). These several rules under several administrations put the Palestinian water resources under stringent circumstances to be used in the development of agricultural and other ecosystems, and even made the available of the underground water resources limited, while on the other side, no limitations for the water used in the development of the Israeli agriculture, industrial and other ecosystems. In the second Intifada, starting September 2000, Israel expanded there settlements over the West Bank making use of every single aquifer in order to meet the increasing demand of the expanded settlements, also making use of the military force to prevent the Palestinians from using there own and limited resources. In the current situation, all the permits for opening new wells were completely stopped, the rehabilitation of the existing wells was also hindered by the closers, curfews, strict sanctions imposed on the territories, especially the northern part of the West Bank; Jenin, Nablus, Tulkarem, Qalqilia and Salfeet Districts. These measures, in addition to the incursions of the Israeli Forces to the West Bank in April, 2002, made it very difficult to plan, or to make studies for any future comprehensive water master plan. Another major issue concerning the current crises is building of the Apartheid Separation Wall by the Israelis, which will surround the West Bank in a circle, this wall will swallow about quarter of the most fertile agricultural lands in the west Bank, about 28 water wells will be sieged inside the west side of the Apartheid wall area and will be out of the jurisdiction of the Palestinians, which accounts to about 18% of the Palestinian quota from this aquifer (PECDAR, 2003). This will affect the agricultural sector in both ways; it will lower the amount of available water for agriculture, and will decrease the area of the agricultural lands. The Wall will keep all of the Jordan Valley and the Judean Desert under Israel's manipulation; a 20-30 km wide strip will be also sieged inside the Wall. 3-6 Health Considerations Wastewater contains pathogenic microorganism such as bacteria, viruses and parasites. These microorganisms have the potential to cause diseases in the user communities. The use of untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater in agriculture will lead to potential risks to human health. Due to unrestricted use of wastewater in west Bank and Gaza, possible parasitic infestation rates were high than some of the surrounding countries (PECDAR, 1994). Untreated wastewater irrigation leads to relatively higher relevance of hookworm (Feenstra et al, 2000).It also cause Ascariasissis infections among children (Cifuentes et al, 2000). (PECDAR) reported in 1994 that in the West Bank, 12% positive Ascariasis results were indicated in the study of stool samples in problem areas and 8.5% positive Giardia Lamblia. Therefore the public health will affect the public opinion towards the reuse of treated wastewater. Due to the scarcity of water in the West Bank, many cases were recorded of using raw wastewater to irrigate market vegetables, and eaten raw vegetables. In Jordan, which is one of the region countries, and due to using raw wastewater to irrigate different type of vegetables, Cholera out brakes have been recorded in 1981 (Farouki Naser,1999). 3-7 Institutional and Legal Considerations Successful application of a good management in water and wastewater sector need the coordination between human, agencies and interest groups in order to resolve any conflict. The influence of the regulations and political boundaries, agency missions, funding issues, social traditions and customs, religion and cultural heritage in the society, have all interacted to create conflicts in deciding up on the decisions regarding the wastewater and reuse. Institutions in this subject must have a clear mandate and objectives. They must be built on legal foundation in order to able to take the right decision about any conflict that might arise. In the West Bank, opportunities for the development of new sources have not been exhausted yet, but due to political reasons, these opportunities are hindered. It is becoming increasingly necessary for the West Bank to put laws that define wastewater issues and regulate the rule and laws regarding the use of raw wastewater and treatment and reuse. In addition, it is necessary to nominate an authorized institute whose mandate to supervise, audit and to put code of practice to regulate this practice. Chapter 4 Assessment of Wastewater and Water Situation 4-1 Wastewater Collection Systems In the West Bank, Wastewater treatment has been neglected to a certain extent, with most attention focused on measures to solve water quantity and supply problems. Approximately 62% of all Palestinian localities in the Inland Region (non Coastal), representing 86% of the population, including Jerusalem, are served with water supply networks (PECDAR, 2001). This service is generally deficient with an average per capita consumption of about 70 l/c/d in the West Bank and substantial unmet demand. As a result and because the water supply is limited, the search for new sources of water is of great importance in the last few years. Few municipalities have installed wastewater collection systems, with only about 70% coverage within these municipalities (Farouki Naser, 1999). Actually there is no accurate record concerning the percentage of sewered population in the West Bank. The (Farouki Naser, 1999) states that only 20% of the West Bank is part of a sewer system; all rural and suburban areas rely on onsite cesspits. (PASSIA, 2002), reported that 37.5% of the West Bank inhabitants are connected with sewage system. In some other studies, only 30%-35% of the population of the West Bank as a whole is connected to sewage networks. Table 4.1 shows the percentage of served inhabitants in the major cities of the West Bank: Table 4.1: Existing Wastewater collection systems in the Main Cities of the West Bank, 2003 City Inhabitants served % Wastewater Collected Total sewage network Length (Km) Jenin city & camp 45,000 40 40 Nablus 85 80 Tulkarem 40,000 70 45 Qalqilia 37,500 90 85 Bethlahem (district) N/A 75 83 Hebron 120,000 80 124 Ramallah 12,000 65 35 Al Bireh 35,000 95 60 Salfeet 7,000 70 30 Source: Water and wastewater departments in the municipalities. In the rural and suburban areas, cesspits themselves constitute a threat to freshwater, if they overflow, as frequently happens. They contaminate the soil and groundwater with raw sewage. If the cesspits are pumped out, the sewage is usually dumped into the nearest wadis. So not only freshwater is declining due to population growth, it is also under the threat from pollution (Farouki Naser, 1999). The following gives a brief description of the status of the wastewater collection systems in the major cities of the West Bank: • Jenin Wastewater Collection system The raw wastewater in Jenin can be classified as strong wastewater especially in BOD and suspended solids loading. The BOD and TSS in Figure 4.1 Jenin were estimated to be 1100 mg/l and 1088 ppm, respectively (PECDAR, 1994). The total wastewater quantities generated in Jenin are about 2400 m3/d. Approximately, 40% of Jenin's population is connected to the sewage collection system (Jenin municipality, 2003). The other 60% of the population use septic tanks or cesspits that are emptied by vacuumed tanks to the nearby wadis. This untreated effluent is being discharged into the nearby wadis causing potential serious environmental and health hazards. Before the current Intifada, only 13% of the wastewater was inadequately treated by the old and insufficient treatment plant. Recently, a bypass was constructed to take the discharged wastewater into the nearest wadis, without passing into the treatment plant. The total length of the sewage network in Jenin is about 40 km. The majority length of the network is 80 years old and undersized. A very large portion of this network has been destroyed by the Israeli tanks. The future plans require the construction of 130 km of sewage pipe. This is still under study and design and will be connected to a proposed new treatment plant. • Nablus Wastewater Collection System Nablus is one of the largest cities in the West Bank, about 85% of the households in Nablus city is connected with sewer systems (Nablus municipality, 2003). Due to the topography of Nablus city, the sewage collection system consists of two parts, the western part and the eastern part. In the old city of Nablus, the sewage system is a combined system, sewage and storm water. The combined system has two effects on the wastewater generated in winter season. One is negative which is increasing the volume of the wastewater quantities, and the other is a positive effect which is diluting concentrations of the resulting domestic and industrial wastewater, which means decreasing the BOD and COD. Despite this fact, the BOD of the discharged raw wastewater and the TSS are considered to be relatively high. BOD was estimated to be 600 mg/l and 560 mg/l in the west side and east side of Nablus respectively. The TSS was estimated to be about 488 ppm and 840 ppm in the west side and east side respectively (PECDAR, 1994). The western part of the sewer in system Nablus city discharges into Wadi Zeimar towards Tulkarem. Along this wadi other villages and stone cutting factories close to the city also discharge into this wadi. A design plan for a future treatment plant for this part of the system is ready for construction, but due to land acquisition issues, the construction did not start. The eastern side discharge into Wadi Al Sajoor, from where sewage flows through Wadi El Badan down into the Jordan Valley. The resulting wastewater either pollutes the aquifer through percolation or is used by the farmers for irrigation, causing serious hazardous effects for both the Groundwater and health. The untreated wastewater is used for irrigating vegetables, fodder crops and fruit trees with no consideration of water quality. In Nablus district, as well as other districts of the West Bank, cesspits are the common form of sewage collection in the villages. This accounts for more than 60% of the district's overall population (UNEP). This is leading to environmental and health risks, with leakages polluting wells and springs. • Tulkarem Wastewater Collection System Tulkarem district has the same situation as other parts of the West Bank. Wastewater is either discharged into the nearby wadis, or temporarily stored in cesspits prior to dumping (ARIJ, 2002a). About 70% of the population of Tulkarem is connected to the Wastewater collection system. The rest depend on cesspits for Wastewater disposal. The sewage network in Tulkarem extends to about 45 km. Only 50% of the Wastewater flows into the stabilization ponds operated by the municipality. The other half flows into Wadi Zeimar. An emergency treatment facility has been constructed to prevent the pollution of Alexander stream. The leakage from the sewage network of Tulkarem reaches 50%. Most of the cesspits in Tulkarem district are built without cement lining in order to encourage sewage infiltration to the ground and thereby minimize emptying costs (ARIJ, 1996e). This causes further groundwater pollution effects. • Qalqilia Wastewater Collection System The situation of the wastewater collection in Qalqilia city is better than Tulkarem in terms of percentage of population connected to the collection system, which is about 90%, but the system suffers from the same technical problems. The sewage collecting system in Qalqilia extends to a length of about 85km covering about 90% of the population, of which only 40% of the wastewater flows into the stabilization ponds. The rest also flows into Wadi Zeimar and is being treated by a treating facility and discharges into Alexander stream. The main sewer of Qalqilia and an Israeli settlement close to the city discharge their sewage into an open channel which is connected to the Yarakon river and heading for Tel Aviv. Some of the generated sewage is being collected in an oxidation pool by a nearby settlement and the effluent is used irrigation. Wastewater generated from another nearby settlement directly flows into Wadi Qana nearby Qalqilia and causes problems for the Palestinian people living there. Until now the Health Department of the municipality did not find out if their groundwater wells are contaminated. (ARIJ, 2002a) survey mentioned that the leakage of the Qalqilia wastewater collection system reaches 50%, in addition to the cesspits which are built without cement lining causing further groundwater contamination. • Ramallah Wastewater Collection System The metropolitan area of Ramllah (and Al Bireh) is growing fast. Many ministries and governmental institutions are located in the district. The area of Ramallah City is 19,000 dunums, of which 5000 is built up. The existing municipal wastewater collection system covers about 65% of the built-up area of Ramallah. The average present dry weather flow into the existing treatment plant is estimated to be 1457 m3/day (Arabtech-Jardaneh, May, 2003). The existing treatment plant, located in Ramallah industrial zone, discharges the sewage freely in a very bad condition to a nearby Wadi of Beitunia through a discharge pipe. The pipe is located about 1.5 km downstream the existing Wastewater treatment plant, which is overloaded. • Al Bireh Wastewater Collection System The situation of the Wastewater Collection System of Al Bireh City is the best among all the cities of the West Bank, if not in allover Palestine. About 95% (35,000 inhabitants) of Al Bireh population has been connected to the collection system. This wastewater is being treated by a recently operated new treatment plant, which also treats the discharges that come from some of the surrounding settlements. The total length of the sewage network is about 60 km. • Jericho Wastewater Collection System There is no collection network in the whole district. All the residents of Jericho district are depending entirely on cesspits for wastewater disposal. Trucks abstract the sewage and dispose it into Wadi Al Kilt. The wastewater in the Jericho city is composed of only domestic wastewater, with minimal industrial proportion. The farmers in the district use the discharged raw wastewater in growing their crops. • Salfeet Wastewater Collection System The wastewater collection system of Salfeet city is being recently under construction. The collection sewer system is considered the first phase of an integrated collection system for Salfeet city. The system is proposed to consist of sewage network as a first stage, followed by a treatment plant as the second stage of the system. About 30 km of the network is constructed which serves about 7,000 inhabitants, or 70% of the population. • Hebron Wastewater Collection System About 80% of the population of Hebron is connected to the wastewater collection system. Sewage Pipe lines and households connections are currently being installed in Hebron city. The wastewater in Hebron is characterized by high COD, Chlorine and TSS contents. These parameters were estimated to be 2736 mg/l, 1794 ppm and 3540 mg/l as CL The present wastewater network is very old and has many problems, such as accumulation of solid wastes, that causes clogging and flooding of the system. In addition to the absence of a storm water drainage system causes overloading in the winter season. The existing network has a total length of about 124 km. The generated domestic and industrial wastewater should be discharged by pumping it about 11km to a storage reservoir on top of a hill and then to a sedimentation pond east of the city. Because the pumping station is recently out of order, the raw sewage is collected and then discharged to the nearest wadis such as Wadi Al Samen and Wadi Al Hariyyah in the southern part of Hebron. The raw wastewater is being used by farmers. The sewage network of Hebron serves about 80% (120,000 inhabitants) of the population of the city. Designs are ready to extend the network in order to serve 95% of the population. • Bethlehem District Wastewater Treatment Collection System The total population of the district is about 125,000 inhabitants producing about 12,000 m3/d of wastewater. By the year 2000, about 75% of the population of Bethlehem city is connected with a collection system, which was extended by the project Bethlehem 2000. The generated wastewater from the district is discharged by gravity either to the western side or to the eastern side of the city of Bethlehem. The western side discharge through 400mm diameter pipe to the Jerusalem main trunk which is discharged to a treatment plant nearby Jerusalem. The eastern part of Bethlehem district drains to the north and south which is pumped to flow in an open ditch in Wadi Kidron (Wadi Al Nar), then combining the sewage discharged from the eastern Jerusalem. The eastern side of the discharge produces about 2400m3 / d. There are two existing pumping stations, one in the northern side and the other in the southern side of Bet Sahour city. Those pumps divert the collected wastewater to the Wadi Kidron. This quantity is proposed to be collected and treated by the future proposed treatment plant. Until recently, no treating process takes place and the plant does not exist yet. The generated wastewater in Bethlehem district include a great proportions of industrial wastewater, several types of industries are existing in Bethlehem and are located in the residential areas. These industries include stone cutting facilities, textiles, chemical detergents, paint, tobacco, food and beverage factories. Most of these factories discharge their wastewater into wadis, without any treatment, and flows towards the Dead Sea. Where as a major part of the sewage is treated at the Soreq wastewater treatment Plant. The major problem related to the Bethlehem wastewater is the stone cutting facilities that use large quantities of water for cooling of the cutting blades. This causes high quantities of total suspended solids, in addition to metals generated from the cutting blades, greases, as well as the large quantities of used water in the cooling. • Status of the Wastewater Collection Systems in the Refugee Camps In most of the refugee camps of the West Bank, wastewater flows through open channels which were originally constructed by the U.N. in order to collect the storm water in these camps. These channels are liable to overflow during heavy rains. In summer seasons, an unpleasant smell is annoying the people living in and around these camps. During the Israeli military incursions of April 2002, great damage to the system in Jenin Camp occurred, which caused wastewater seepage through the destroyed houses. 4-2 Wastewater Current Reuse in the West Bank In all localities in the West Bank, partially treated or raw wastewater is discharged to wadis and valleys where discharges are used for irrigating vegetables without any consideration to the effluent quality. In different localities in the West Bank (Jenin, Nablus, Bethlehem and Jerusalem), raw sewage is used to irrigate hundred of dunoms with different kinds of crops including vegetables eaten raw (eggplants, squash, parsely, radish, pepper, onion, mint). 4-3 Status of Wastewater Treatment in the West Bank Few treatment plants exist in the West Bank, recent investigations has shown that wastewater treatment plants in the West Bank do not produce safe effluent. Such plants are producing a partially treated effluent and their performance is inadequate (PECDAR, 1994), except Al Bireh treatment plant. Most of these treatment plants were constructed in the seventies, although the resulted effluents are not considered of better quality from the influent. Due to the unsafe effluent and because there has been no maintenance and repairs as well as there is no institutional agency responsible for the proper updating of the operation. These facilities are considered as poor examples of wastewater treatment. In addition, small scale reuse schemes are used in the West Bank (Jenin and Sawahreh in Jerusalem Governate). Most of these schemes are utilizing the untreated wastewater for irrigation of unrestricted farming (vegetables, fruits, and salad crops). During the current crisis (the second Intifada started September, 2000), the access of municipal maintenance staff to wastewater treatment plants has, at various times, been difficult or impossible as a result of curfews, partial or full closures, and overall worker safety and security considerations. Israel measures have also raised difficulties in obtaining spare parts and disinfectants such as chlorine. The Palestinian Environmental Quality Authority stated that more than two thirds of the West Bank is categorized as being vulnerable in terms of pollution. Due to the low water consumption of water per capita in the West Bank, the wastewater influent is characterized of high concentrations and high BOD. The existing treatment plants are of low efficiency and do not produce safe effluents as mentioned earlier. The current status of the existing treatment in the West Bank is as follows • Jenin Treatment Plant The wastewater treatment plant of Jenin is an old, small, and not an efficient facility which was constructed in 1972 and rehabilitated in the year 1993. The system consists of three aerated lagoons with a surface area of 10,500m2 with a depth of 3m in addition to one polishing pond with a design flow of 760 m3/d. Influent concentrations of COD and BOD were detected at higher than the design level of 1440 and 800 mg/l respectively (Nashashibi, and Van Duijl, 1995). Although the plant is newly rehabilitated, recently the plant is out of order. During the current crisis, the aerators of the lagoons are broken, no maintenance can be performed, and no spare parts can be imported to the plant due to the strict closures imposed on the territories. The influent is being bypassed by a sewer pipe without any treatment. This untreated effluent is being discharged into wadis, resulting in potentially serious environmental and health risks, in addition to potential groundwater contamination. • Tulkarem Treatment Ponds The treatment ponds in Tulkarem consist of three 0.5 hectare anaerobic lagoons constructed in 1975 for a design flow of approximately 200m3/d. The plant is hydraulically and organically overloaded with hydrogen sulfide odors being emitted (Gearheart, Bahri and Al Hamdi, 1994). The final effluent is discharged through a nearby wadi which crosses the green line where pumped to a large pond in Yad Hana Kibbutz. The effluent is used for irrigation. • Ramallah Treatment Plant The plant consists of a bar screen, Parshall flume, two parallel aeration ponds and two stabilization ponds in series. Aeration ponds have a volume of 3,800m3 each. The total volume of stabilization ponds is 10,000 m3 (with an average surface area of 1,000 m2). The wastewater flow to the treatment plant far exceeds the design capacity of the plant and the treatment efficiency does not exceed 20%. The existing effluent is discharged through 2km long 300 mm diameter pipe into a nearby wadi. The treatment plant is recently being extended. The extension process has completed the concrete works. • He